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Special Public Works Programmes - SPWP - Soil Conservation - Project Design and Implementation Using Labour Intensive Techniques (ILO - UNDP, 1982, 220 p.) (introduction...) PREFACE INTRODUCTION CHAPTER A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES A.1. THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOIL DEGRADATION A.2. RAINFALL EROSION 2.1. Factors in rainfall erosion (introduction...) 2.1.1. Rainfall 2.1.2. Nature of the soil 2.1.3. Slope of the land 2.1.4. Vegetation 2.1.5. Man 2.2. The effects of rainfall erosion 2.2.1. Mechanical effects 2.2.2. Chemical effects 2.3. Integration of rain water erosion factors A.3. SOIL EROSION BY WIND 3.1. Wind erosion factors 3.2. The effects of wind erosion A.4. OTHER FORMS OF SOIL DEGRADATION 4.1. Excessive humidity 4.2. Excess of toxic salts 4.3. Unsuitable agricultural practices 4.4. Socio-economic aspects of soil degradation A.5. LAND USE 5.1. Land employment 5.2. Land classification 5.2.1. Classification system developed by the Soil Conservation Service of the US Department of Agriculture 5.2.2. Other classification systems CHAPTER B. EROSION PROTECTION TECHNIQUES B.1. CONSERVATION OF PROTECTED LAND 1.1. Forests 1.1.1. Role of the forest in soil conservation mechanisms 1.1.2. Main forest species used in afforestation 1.1.3. Preparing a reafforestation plan 1.1.4. Ground preparation 1.1.5. Seed preparation 1.1.6. Afforestation using the direct sowing method 1.1.7. Afforestation by planting 1.1.8. Maintaining the afforested area 1.1.9. Plantation conservation 1.2. Pastures 1.2.1. Role of pastures in soil conservation mechanisms 1.2.2. Techniques for the creation, conservation and improvement of pastures B.2. CONSERVATION OF CROP LAND 2.1. Biological procedures (introduction...) 2.1.1. Cover crops 2.1.2. Mulching 2.1.3. Crop rotation 2.1.4. Mixed cropping 2.1.5. Lea crops 2.1.6. Rotation field-strip cropping 2.1.7. Increasing the soil’s organic reserves 2.2. Farming practices (introduction...) 2.2.1. Contour ploughing 2.2.2. Contour or slightly inclined ridging 2.2.3. Subsoiling and chiselling 2.3. Defence networks 2.3.1. The role of defence networks and the systems used 2.3.2. Main types 2.3.3. Dimensions 2.4. Bench terraces1 (introduction...) 2.4.1. Terraces constructed at a single go 2.4.2. Terraces constructed progressively 2.5. Drainage works 2.5.1. Characteristics of gully erosion and the role of control works 2.5.2. Determining run-off conditions 2.5.3. Main types of construction 2.6. Bank, channel and gully protection (introduction...) 2.6.1. Stabilising banks with vegetation 2.6.2. Protection of banks by construction works 2.7. Correcting the slope of water courses 2.7.1. Role of constructions 2.7.2. Type of work 2.7.3. Principles of calculating structure dimensions B.3. WIND EROSION PROTECTION TECHNIQUES 3.1. Dune stabilisation (introduction...) 3.1.1. Conventional techniques for stabilising maritime dunes 3.1.2. Techniques for the stabilisation of continental dunes 3.1.3. Dune stabilisation by a coating of bituminous products 3.2. Crop land protection 3.2.1. Windbreaks 3.2.2. Other techniques 3.3. Pasture protection CHAPTER C. REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES FOR WATERLOGGED SOILS C.1. AIMS OF DRAINAGE C.2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRAINAGE 2.1. Open ditches 2.2. Underdrains (introduction...) 2.2.1. Fascine drains 2.2.2. Stone slab drains 2.2.3. Drains with stone backfill 2.2.4. Wooden box drains 2.2.5. Peat drains 2.2.6. Earthenware piping drains 2.2.7. Concrete drainpipes 2.2.8. Bituminous fibre drainpipes 2.2.9. Plastic drainpipes 2.3. Mole drainage 2.4. Subsoiling C.3. DETERMINING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A DRAINAGE NETWORK 3.1. Water movement in a drained soil 3.2. Determination of basic data 3.2.1. Causes of wetness 3.2.2. Optimal water table level 3.2.3. Permissible submersion time 3.2.4. Type of soil - permeability 3.2.5. Intrinsic flow rate of network 3.3. Calculating the drainage network 3.3.1. Network design 3.3.2. Drain depth 3.3.3. Drain spacing 3.3.4. Drain diameter and length 3.3.5. Calculation of collectors CHAPTER D. METHODOLOGY FOR SETTING UP A SOIL CONSERVATION PROJECT D.1. PRELIMINARY STUDIES 1.1. Aims 1.2. Situation analysis (introduction...) 1.2.1. The physical context 1.2.2. The socio-economic context 1.3. Assessing the extent of possible measures 1.3.1. Damage assessment 1.3.2. Envisaged investment D.2. DRAFT PROJECT 2.1. Aims 2.2. Analysis of basic data 2.3. Hypothesis of improvements 2.4. Economic analysis (introduction...) 2.4.1. The expenditures 2.4.2. Income 2.4.3. Balance sheet 2.5. Selection of improvements D.3. THE PROJECT 3.1. Objectives 3.2. Field studies 3.2.1. Topographic work 3.2.2. Survey borings 3.3. Project documents (introduction...) 3.3.1. Written documents: 3.3.2. Drawings: CHAPTER E. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION1 (introduction...) E.1. GENERAL SITE ORGANISATION 1.1. Survey of local conditions and site reconnaissance (introduction...) 1.1.1. Natural constraints 1.1.2. Technical and economic constraints 1.2. Project planning 1.2.1. Objectives of planning 1.2.2. Forms of planning and their requirements 1.2.3. Planning procedure 1.2.4. Bar chart or GANTT chart 1.2.5. Time and location chart planning 1.2.6. Network or critical path planning 1.3. Setting up the site 1.3.1. Construction of access roads 1.3.2. Construction of site buildings 1.3.3. Plant installation 1.4. Site management 1.4.1. Management technique 1.4.2. Personnel management 1.4.3. Incentive system 1.4.4. Role of project management E.2. TOPOGRAPHICAL STUDIES (introduction...) 2.1. Topographical survey (introduction...) 2.1.1. Planimetric survey 2.1.2. Levelling 2.1.3. Composition of a topographic survey team and survey standards E.3. MARKING AND STAKING OUT THE STRUCTURE (introduction...) 3.1. Preparation of the ground plan 3.2. Preparation on the ground (introduction...) 3.2.1. Main staking out 3.2.2. Additional staking 3.2.3. Staking report 3.2.4. Displaced stakes 3.3. Personnel requirements and work output E.4. GROUND PREPARATION 4.1. Clearing the land over the area covered by the works 4.2. Stripping - subsoiling E.5. EXECUTION OF EARTHWORKS 5.1. General comments on soil type and handling 5.1.1. Land classification 5.1.2. Bank gradients 5.1.3. Bulking - consolidation 5.2. Tools (introduction...) 5.2.1. Trenching tools 5.2.2. Tools for loading earth 5.2.3. Tools for soil haulage 5.2.4. Tools for soil compacting 5.3. Manpower 5.4. Labour organisation 5.5. Earth-moving methods and outputs 5.5.1. Trench digging and spoil removal 5.5.2. Loading and reworking spoil 5.5.3. Spoil haulage 5.5.4. Unloading, spreading and compacting 5.5.5. Bank grading 5.6. Examples of earthworks 5.6.1. Construction of a canal or ditch 5.6.2. Construction of earth dams E.6. IMPLEMENTATION OF REAFFORESTATION WORK (introduction...) 6.1. Nursery work 6.2. Planting 6.3. Construction of forest tracks 6.4. Plantation maintenance 6.5. Examples of a plantation: planting along contour lines 6.6. Productivity norms E.7. IMPLEMENTATION OF DRAINAGE WORKS 7.1. Installation of a drainage network 7.2. Tracing out total trench width 7.3. Calculating trench depth 7.4. Trench digging 7.5. Trimming the trench bottom 7.6. Drain laying and backfilling the trench 7.7. Manpower and output in manual drainage work E.8. CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY WORK 8.1. Different types of masonry work 8.2. Dry-stone masonry work 8.3. Normal masonry work 8.4. Gabion masonry work E.9. CARRYING OUT CONCRETE WORK 9.1. Characteristics of concretes 9.2. Concrete preparation 9.3. Shuttering 9.4. Steel reinforcement 9.5. Installing the reinforcement bars APPENDICES (introduction...) I. STANDARD PLANS II. BIBLIOGRAPHY BACK COVER