ENEMIES OF STORED GRAIN
VOLUME II OF
SMALL FARM GRAIN STORAGE
BY
CARL LINDBLAD, PEACE CORPS
AND
LAUREL DRUBEN, VITA
ACTION/PEACE CORPS
VOLUNTEERS IN TECHNICAL
PROGRAM & TRAINING JOURNAL
ASSISTANCE
MANUAL SERIES
NUMBER 2 VITA
PUBLICATIONS
MANUAL SERIES NUMBER
35E
FIRST PRINTING SEPTEMBER 1976
SECOND PRINTING,
IN THREE VOLUMES JULY 1977
THIRD PRINTING
JULY 1980
VITA
1600 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 500
Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA
Tel: 703/276-1800 * Fax:
703/243-1865
Internet:
pr-info@vita.org
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
The Purpose of
the Manual
The People Who
Prepared This Manual
The Sponsoring
Organization
How to Use This
Manual
Introduction
SECTION 1:
INSECTS
What is an
Insect?
Insect Life
Cycle
How Insects Get
into Grain
Why Insects
Infest Grain
Common Grain
Pests
Information
Sheets on Some Major Stored
Grain Insect
Pests
Control of
Insects in Stored Grain
Controlling
Insects without Insecticides
Checklist
Insect Control
with Insecticides
Types of
Insecticides
Some Closing
Notes
Insecticide
Information Sheets
Recommended
Insecticides and Dosages
Applying
Insecticides
Note to
Development Workers
Checklist
Helping Someone
Who Has Been Poisoned by Insecticide
SECTION 2:
RODENTS
Stored Grain
Rodents
Habits and
Characteristics of Stored Grain Rodents
Finding Rodents
on the Farm
Controlling
Rodents without Using Poison
Controlling Rats
with Poison
Rodent Poison
Information Sheets
Rat Baffles
"Rats are
Everywhere"
"Know About
Rats"
"Fighting
Rats with Poison"
"Fighting
Rats with Traps"
Rodent Control
Illustrations
APPENDIX A:
Guidelines for the Use of Insecticides
APPENDIX B:
Bibliography: Reprint of
Listings Prepared
by the
Tropical Products Institute, London
CONVERSION TABLES
PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL
Small Farm Grain Storage is a set of how-to manuals.
Together these
volumes provide a comprehensive overview of storage problems
and
considerations as they relate to the small farmer.
The authors
recommend the volumes be purchased as a set because the
material forms
an excellent and complete working and teaching tool for
development
workers in the field.
This grain storage information can be adapted
easily to meet on-the-job needs; it has already been used as
the
basis for a grain storage workshop and seminar in East
Africa.
This set of publications retains the purpose of the original
volume:
to bring together and to communicate effectively to field
personnel
1) the basic principles of grain storage and 2) the
practical solutions
currently being used and tested around the world to combat
grain storage problems.
Only the format has been changed to:
*
reduce printing and postage costs.
*
permit updating and revising one volume at a
time.
*
provide smaller books that are easier to
hold and use
than the large,
single volume.
*
make portions of the information available
to the user
who is especially
interested in only one or another of
the major aspects
of small farm grain storage.
Of course, it is impossible to cover all storage situations
in this
manual. But farmers
who understand the basic, unchanging principles
of drying and storing grain are better able to adapt ideas,
suggestions,
and technologies from other parts of the world to their own
needs.
This material was prepared for use by those who work to
facilitate
such understanding.
OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL
Volume I, "Preparing Grain for Storage," discusses
grain storage
problems as they are faced by small-scale farmers.
This volume
contains explanations of the structure of grain, the
relationship
between grain and moisture, the need for proper drying.
One large
section contains detailed, fully illustrated plans for
constructing
a variety of small-scale grain dryers.
Volume II, "Enemies of Stored Grain," is an
in-depth study of two
major enemies:
insects and rodents. Each is
discussed in detail
with guidelines for 1) defining the size of the problem and
2) protecting
grain by both chemical and non-chemical means.
This volume
includes dose and use information for a variety of
pesticides, as well
as suggestions for preparing materials to be used in
audio-visual
presentations.
Volume III, "Storage Methods," contains a survey
of storage facilities
from the most traditional basket-type granary to metal bins
and cement
silos. The emphasis
in this volume is on improving existing facilities;
for example, there are detailed construction procedures for
an
improved mud silo.
Storage in underground pits and sacks also is
discussed. There are
guidelines for using insecticides in storage
situations. The
largest silo presented in detail is the 4.5 ton
cement stave silo.
THE PEOPLE WHO PREPARED THIS MANUAL
Carl Lindblad served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Dahomey
(Benin)
from 1972 to 1975.
As a Volunteer, Lindblad worked in programs
designed to introduce and popularize a variety of grain
storage
technologies. Upon
his return to the United States, he began the task
of pulling together this manual as a consultant to VITA and
Peace
Corps. At present,
he serves as a consultant to a number of international
organizations, specializing in appropriate technologies for
grain storage -- in the areas of planning, extension and
evaluation.
He spends much of his time in the field.
Laurel Druben served as an International Voluntary Services,
Inc.
Volunteer in Laos from 1966 to 1968.
While in Laos she was a
curriculum planner and a teacher of English as a second
language.
Subsequently, she worked with a consulting firm evaluating
government-funded
research and development projects, ran a small
education-oriented
business, and was a free-lance consultant and proposal
writer. Druben, who
has worked and lived in India and Micronesia,
as well as Southeast Asia, is Director of Communications for
VITA.
Many thanks are due to the skilled and concerned people who
worked to
make this manual possible:
A number of VITA
people provided technical review, artwork,
and production
skills:
Staff assistance
-- John Goodell
Section 4, Vol. I
materials -- Frederick Bueche
Technical review
-- Douglas Barnes, Merle Esmay, Henry Highland,
Larry Van Fossen, Harold Willson, Kenton Harris
Artwork -- George
Clark, John Goodell, Kenneth Lloyd,
Nicholas Reinhardt, Guy Welch
Thanks are
extended to the following individuals and institutions
that provided
invaluable assistance in early stages of work on
the manual:
Mary Ernsberger
and Margot Aronson, Peace Corps Program and
Training
Journal, USA
Brenda Gates,
Peace Corps Information Collection & Exchange, USA
Tropical Stored
Products Center, TPI, Great Britain
Henry Barre and
Floyd Herum, Agricultural Engineering Department,
Ohio State
University, USA
Department of
Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University,
USA
Agricultural
Research Service, Department of Agriculture, USA
Extension Project
Implementation Department, Ministry of
Agriculture,
Ethiopia
F. W. Bennett,
Midwest Research Institute, USA
Supervised
Agricultural Credit Programs (SACP), Belize
Peter Giles,
Nicaragua
Donald Pfalser,
Agricultural Cooperatives Development International
(ACDI), USA
Technical
Assistance Bureau, US Agency for International
Development
(AID), USA
International
Development Research Center, University of Alberta,
Canada
League for
International Food Education (LIFE), USA
Institut de
Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et des Cultures
Vivrieres
(IRAT), France
Post-Harvest Crop
Protection Project, University of Hawaii, USA
Agricultural
Engineering Service, FAO
African Rural
Storage Center, IITA, Nigeria
Institute for
Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University,
Nigeria
Swaziland Rural
Grain Storage Project
Jim McDowell,
Food Technology and Nutrition Section, UNICEF, Kenya
Gordon Yadcuik,
Centre Nationale de Recherches Agronomiques (CNRA),
Senegal
R. A. Boxall,
Indian Grain Storage Institute, A.P., India
Siribonse
Boon-Long, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation,
Thailand
Asian Institute
of Technology, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Merrick Lockwood,
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council
International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines
Dante de Padua,
University of Los Banos, Philippines
THE SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS
Small Farm Grain Storage is part of a series of publications
combining
Peace Corps practical field experience with VITA technical
expertise
in areas in which development workers have special
difficulties
finding useful resource materials.
ACTION/Peace Corps
Since 1961 Peace Corps Volunteers have worked at the
grassroots level
in countries around the world in program areas such as
agriculture,
public health, and education.
Before beginning their two-year
assignments, Volunteers are given training in
cross-cultural, technical,
and language skills.
This training helps them to live and work
closely with the people of their host countries.
It helps them, too,
to approach development problems with new ideas that make
use of
locally available resources and are appropriate to the local
cultures.
Recently Peace Corps established an Information Collection
and
Exchange, so that these ideas developed during service in
the field
could be made available to the wide range of development
workers who
might find them useful.
Materials from the field are now being
collected, reviewed, and classified in the Information
Collection and
Exchange system. The
most useful materials will be shared with the
development world.
The Information Collection and Exchange provides
an important source of field-based research materials for
the production
of how-to manuals such as Small Farm Grain Storage.
VITA
VITA people are specialists who volunteer their free time to
answer
requests for technical assistance.
Many VITA Volunteers have lived
and worked in other countries, often as Peace Corps
Volunteers. Most
VITA people now work in the United States and other
developed
countries where they are engineers, doctors, scientists,
farmers,
architects, writers, artists, and so on.
But they continue to work
with people in other countries through VITA.
VITA Volunteers have
been providing technical assistance to the Third World for
almost
20 years.
Requests for assistance come to VITA from many nations.
Each request
is handled by a Volunteer with the right skills.
For example, a
question about grain storage in Latin America might be
handled by a
professor of agriculture, and a request for an improved planting
implement would go to an agricultural engineer.
These VITA Volunteers,
many of whom have lived and worked in Third World countries,
are
familiar with the special problems of these areas and are
able to give
useful, and appropriate, answers.
VITA makes the expertise of VITA people available to a wide
audience
through its publications program.
HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL
Development workers can use material from this manual in a
number of
ways:
*
Discussions.
The manual provides clear presentations of grain
storage
principles from which you can take material to lead
discussions
with farmers and village leaders.
*
Demonstrations.
There are suggestions for demonstrations and
experiments which
you might find helpful to illustrate grain
storage
principles to farmers.
*
Leaflets.
Some of the material has been prepared in the form
of
illustrated leaflets which can be used directly by you
with a
farmer. They may require little or no
adaptation by
you.
But, if you prefer, you can use the
structure of the
leaflet and
substitute photographs specific to your area.
The material
on rodent control in Volume II is a good example
of this kind
of leaflet.
*
Construction Plans.
Many of the construction plans have been
simplified so
that you will be able to work more closely with
the
farmer. Some of the plans are fully
illustrated. You
could add
photographs of the work steps showing conditions in
your
area. It is likely that after you
introduce the material,
farmers can
follow the instructions themselves. The
plans are
written so that they would be easy to translate
into local
languages. The Improved Maize Drying
Crib in
Volume I is a
good example of a step-by-step, illustrated
presentation.
*
Checklists.
Some of the material most likely to be useful for
small-scale
farmers has been simplified and prepared in checklist
or hand-out
form. This material would lend itself
to
illustrations
or photographs, so it can better fit into the
local
situation. The checklists on
controlling grain storage
insect pests
included in Volume II are in this category.
*
Examples.
The appendices contain examples of leaflets that
have been
prepared by development workers in several countries.
These
examples have been included to give you some
idea of how
the materials in this manual might be organized,
illustrated,
translated, and presented to reach farmers.
*
Sources.
Wherever possible, addresses are given so that you
can write for
more information on a subject.
*
Further Information.
Other appendices contain information on
areas which,
although important, cannot be covered fully within
the scope of
this manual, for example, storage program
planning. A bibliography is
provided at the end of each volume.
These are some of the aims of Small Farm Grain Storage.
You will
probably find added uses.
While it is not possible to make this
manual specific to the situations or culture of your
particular area,
the information is presented so that you can do this very
easily by
making additions or substitutions to the material.
Dimensions are given in metric units in the text and
illustrations.
Conversion tables are provided at the end of each volume.
This manual will grow and change as its readers and users
send in
additional material, comments, and ideas for new approaches
to grain
storage problems and better ways to communicate with
farmers. Your
own ideas and conclusions are welcome.
A form has been included for
your comments.
Please send us the results of your silo or dryer
building. Let us
know how you used the information and how it could
be make even more useful to you.
Tell us how you changed a plan to
fit local needs.
Your experience will help us to produce manuals of growing
usefulness
to the world-wide development community.
REPLY FORM
For your convenience, a reply form has been inserted
here. Please
send it in and let us know how the manual has helped or can
be made
more helpful. If the
reply form is missing from your book, just put
your comments, suggestions, descriptions of problems, etc.,
on a
piece of paper and send them to:
GRAIN STORAGE
3706 RHODE ISLAND AVENUE
MT. RAINIER, MD 20822
U.S.A.
ENEMIES OF STORED GRAIN
INTRODUCTION
In any given part of the world, grain can be attacked in a
number of
ways. For example,
some farmers lose a lot of grain to birds and animals
which are common to that area.
Much of this loss occurs because local
methods of grain drying and storage do not provide adequate
protection.
It is not possible to provide a lot of detail here on all
the enemies of
stored grain simply because the list would have to be so
long and would
differ by area. But
there are two major groups of stored grain enemies
which are common to all parts of the world:
insects and rodents.
The
material in this volume deals with controlling these pests.
The authors wish to make special note here of their intent
to add a section
to this volume which contains guidelines for
non-chemical/organic
control of stored grain pests.
If you are experimenting with non-chemical
and organic means of control, please let us know of your
efforts.
1 Insects
This discussion of insects deals only with some of the
insects that
attack stored grain.
It is designed to help you provide farmers with
the information they need to control insect infestation in
their stored
grain. If you find
insects in your area that are not discussed here, or
if you require more information on insects in general, there
are more
detailed books which will help you name the pest and will
give information
on controlling the pest.
WHAT IS AN INSECT?
Adult insects have six legs.
Farmers may see other insect-like creatures
in or near their grain, but they are not insects if they
have more or
less than six legs.
Spiders, mites, and scorpions have more than six
legs, so they are not insects.
Most adult insects have two pairs of wings; some insects can
fly and some
cannot. All adult
insects have three main parts to their bodies:
head
(front); thorax (middle); abdomen (behind).
The legs and wings are
attached to the thorax.
<FIGURE 1>
51bp01.gif (317x317)
Some Other Facts About Insects:
*
Insects have no bones,and the soft inside
parts are protected
in a hard
case called the exoskeleton.
*
Insects bite off, scrape off, or chew food
using their mandibles
(jaws).
*
Some insects are 25cm long.
Most grain storage insects are
only from 2
to 20mm long. The length of an insect
is measured
from the tip
of the head to the end of the abdomen.
INSECT LIFE CYCLE
<FIGURE 2>
51bp02a.gif (437x437)
Humans grow from babies to children to
adults. This is the
human life cycle.
Most grain insects grow from eggs to
larvae to pupae to adults.
These growth
stages are the insects' life cycle.
It is not important for a farmer to know
the names of the insects or the names of
the stages in their life cycles.
But it
is important for him to be able to recognize
insects at all these stages.
Moreover,
he must know how stored grain insects develop, so he will
know
where to look for signs of insects in his grain.
Adult insects are
easy to see, but larvae and eggs of insects often are not.
Eggs
Each female insect can lay many eggs.
The number of eggs depends upon
the kind of insect; some females lay hundreds of eggs.
And each of these
eggs could grow into a new adult.
Some insects lay eggs on top of the
grain; some insects lay eggs inside the grain.
The eggs are laid in
storage or in the field, depending upon the kind of insect.
Larvae
<FIGURE 3>
51bp02b.gif (437x437)
Eggs hatch into larvae.
Larvae are often the
big grain eaters. A
larva growing inside a
grain kernel eats out the inside of the kernel.
Each larva is covered with a tough skin called
the cuticle. The
larva grows and the cuticle
gets too small. The
larva throws the cuticle away, keeps eating, and
forms a new skin.
This whole process might happen three or more times
before the larva is full size and passes to the next stage.
Pupae
This is the transformation stage.
Sometimes the
larva forms a cocoon or other protective covering
around itself as it goes into this stage.
As a
pupa, the growing insect needs no food and moves
only in very small movements.
It just slowly
changes into an adult insect.
<FIGURE 4>
51bp03a.gif (437x437)
Adult
<FIGURE 5>
51bp03b.gif (437x437)
When all the adult characteristics are developed,
the pupa throws off a last skin and the adult
comes out. The new
adult is pale and soft. It
takes 2 - 72 hours for the cuticle of the adult to
harden and take on adult coloring and markings.
HOW INSECTS GET INTO GRAIN
Insects get into grain in a number of ways, depending upon
the kind of
insect:
*
Some insects infest the grain while it is
still in the field -- before
harvest and
after (if the grain is being dried in the
field).
*
Some insects can fly from fields to stored
grain and from stored
grain to the
fields. This
type of insect is very dangerous
because it
can so easily get to the grain.
<FIGURE 6>
51bp03c.gif (486x486)
*
Farmers store grain year after year in the
same sacks, containers,
and
buildings. Bins made of wood or woven
grasses have cracks
and spaces
which fill up with dust, dirt, and broken grains.
Insects live
in these dirty places and infest the new grain
right after
it is put into the container.
*
New grain is put into a storage building
containing grain left
from the last
harvest, grain already heavily infested.
*
Grain goes from the field to the storage
place in carts and
wagons which
were not cleaned after the last use.
WHY INSECTS INFEST GRAIN
Insects which infest grain also eat and live in other
materials. Insects
infest grain because grain provides food.
Unfortunately, in too many cases,
stored grain provides a perfect place for insects to live
and grow because
food, air, moisture, and heat are provided.
<FIGURE 7>
51bp04a.gif (600x600)
Food
Obviously, grain provides food.
But grain provides food for insects in
different ways. Some
insects like certain kinds of grains better than
others. Not all
insects eat the same part of the grain kernel.
How they
eat the grain and the part of the grain they eat depends
upon the type of
insect.
Primary Pests. Some
insects, such as the
Angoumois Grain Moth, the lesser Grain Borer,
and the Rice Weevil are primary pests.
They
attack the grain first.
They are able to
break down the hard seed coat of the whole
grain. Their eggs
are laid inside the kernel,
and the growing larvae eat the inside of the
kernel.
<FIGURE 8>
51bp04b.gif (437x437)
Secondary Pests.
Other insects follow these first attackers.
These are
secondary pests.
They feed on the grain that now has
broken and cracked seed coats.
The Rusty Grain
Beetle is a good example of a secondary pest.
This beetle will not attack healthy, undamaged
grain, but it will attack spoiled grain.
A
farmer should know which beetles attack first
and which do not. If
a farmer sees a Rusty
Grain Beetle in his stored grain, it is a sign
that he should look for other, worse insect
attackers.
<FIGURE 9>
51bp04c.gif (437x437)
Tertiary Pests.
There is even a third group of insects found in stored
grain. These are the
tertiary pests. They feed on
broken grains, grain dust, and powder left by the other
groups. The Confused
Flour Beetle is a tertiary pest of
whole grains. Also,
it is a primary pest of milled grains,
such as flour.
<FIGURE 10>
51bp05.gif (437x437)
It is not important for a farmer to know the names of these
insects, but he should know how the given insects eat and
whether they attack grains already damaged.
If he can read
the signs left by the insects, he will be better able to
find infestations before they become a major problem.
Air
Insects do require a certain amount of air containing oxygen
to live.
Storing grain in containers which keep out air is based on
knowledge of
this fact. Airtight
storage will be discussed later.
Briefly, in airtight
storage, the respiration of the grain, and of insects in the
grain,
uses up the oxygen quickly; any insects present in the grain
will die.
Moisture
Insects need some moisture to live, and they can get it from
stored grain
in several ways:
*
Insects can take moisture from the air, just
as grain can.
*
Grain contains moisture which insects get when
they eat it.
The more
moisture the grain contains, the better food it is
for insects.
*
Insects produce moisture and heat in the
stored grain as they
eat.
The insect-infested grain then respires more
quickly
and produces
more heat and more moisture. In a hot
spot,
where insects
are active, grain releases a lot of moisture
into the
grain mass. Insects can take this
moisture into their
bodies.
When the hot spot becomes too hot, the insects
will
leave it and
go to another part of the grain mass.
*
Insects can take moisture directly from the
wet surfaces of the
grain through
special openings in their bodies.
The fact that insects require a certain amount of moisture
is important
because it underlines the need for careful drying of grain
before it goes into storage.
Heat
Insects live best within a certain temperature range.
As the temperature
in the grain gets lower, they become less active.
At one point they stop
reproducing. If the
temperature goes below 5 [degrees] C they will die, depending
on length of exposure and other conditions.
As the temperature increases
from 10-26 [degrees] C, depending upon the kind of insect,
they become more and
more active. They
will reproduce very quickly in a grain hot spot, for
example, until the grain gets too hot.
Above 35 [degrees] C. they have a more
difficult
time living and die at 60 [degrees] C.
Try to keep stored grain as cool as possible.
COMMON GRAIN PESTS
There are many kinds of insects which can attack stored
grain. But it is
a much smaller number of insects which cause the major
insect problems in
stored grain.
<FIGURE 11>
51bp06.gif (218x437)
The following pages contain information on some major stored
grain insect
pests. Each insect
is discussed on a separate page. This
information
should help farmers indentify the insects which are in their
grain. Since
the right control method often depends upon the kind of
insect involved,
and upon the characteristics of that insect's life cycle,
each page gives
a picture and description of the insect and other
information on that
insect's habits and life cycle.
GRANARY WEEVIL
Sitophilus granarius L.
<FIGURE 12>
51bp07a.gif (437x437)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Brown or black
* Long, thin nose
* Strong jaws
* Long stripes on
the body
* No wings
* 3.5mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In many kinds of
grain
* In all parts of
the world
LIFE CYCLE
* Develops from
egg to adult
in 4 weeks, in
warm weather
Eggs
* Female lays 50 -
250 eggs
inside the grain
kernel
after female
makes hole
with strong jaws
<FIGURE 13>
51bp07b.gif (437x437)
Larvae
* Grow inside
grain kernel
* See Picture
<FIGURE 14>
51bp07c.gif (486x486)
Pupae
* See Picture
<FIGURE 15>
51bp07d.gif (540x540)
Adults
* Develop from egg
to adult
in 4 weeks, in
warm weather
* Leave the seed
and eats the
kernel while
getting ready
to lay eggs
* Adult lives 7-8
months
NOTE:
A Primary Pest.
It looks a lot like the Rice Weevil.
The
Granary Weevil and the Rice Weevil are the only
grain storage insects with long snouts (noses), so
they
are easy to see. The Granary Weevil
cannot fly;
the
Rice Weevil can fly.
LESSER' GRAIN BORER
Rhyzopertha dominica
F.
<FIGURE 16>
51bp08a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Shiny, dark
brown or black
* Head turned down
under body
* Strong jaws
which cut wood
* 2.5 to 3mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In warm places
all over world
* In many kinds of
grain
LIFE CYCLE
* Life Cycle is
completed in
about 5 weeks
*
Each female lays from 300-500 eggs
Eggs
* Laid on the
surface of the grain or
in spaces
between grains
* Hatch in a few
days
<FIGURE 17>
51bp08b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Crawl around
grain eating flour
left by the
boring of adult beetles
* Bore holes in
damaged grains
* Finish growing
inside grain kernel
* Picture of larva
inside kernel of
wheat.
See Picture
<FIGURE 18>
51bp08c.gif (486x486)
Pupae
* See Picture
<FIGURE 19>
51bp08d.gif (486x486)
Adults
* Cut their way
out of the kerne
* Feed on grain
NOTE: A Primary
Pest, both the beetles and the larvae of the Lesser Grain
Borer are very
dangerous insect pests. They bore holes
in the grain
and leave
behind a powder from the chewed-up grain.
Here is a
picture which
shows kernel of wheat full of holes made by the
boring and
feeding of the adult and the larvae.
SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE
Oryzaephilus
surinamensis L.
<FIGURE 20>
51bp09a.gif (540x540)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Narrow, flat,
small, dark brown
* 3.5 mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In sorghum,
maize, and other
cereals and
flour
HOW IT GROWS
* Grows from egg
to adult in 3 to 4
weeks in warm
weather
* Each female lays
about 300 eggs
Eggs
* Laid among the
grains
* Hatch in 3 to 5
days
<FIGURE 21>
51bp09b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Are straw
colored
* Crawl among the
grain eating broken
kernels
* Grow in this
stage about 4 weeks
<FIGURE 22>
51bp09c.gif (486x486)
Pupae
* Form in a cocoon
* See Picture
Adults
* Adults live from
6 months to
3 years
FLAT GRAIN BEETLE
Laemophloeus pusillus Schonherr
<FIGURE 23>
51bp10a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Long antennae
(feelers)
*
Reddish-brown, flat
* 1 - 2mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In produce
which is dusty,
contains
broken grain, or
is already
infested
HOW IT GROWS
* Grows from
egg to adult in
5 weeks
Eggs
* Laid in
cracks in grain or
in spilled
grain
<FIGURE 24>
51bp10b.gif (600x600)
Larvae
*
Yellowish-brown
* Like to eat
the germ of
cereal grains
* May not eat
any other part of
grain
* Like to eat
grain having mold
on it
Pupae
* Transform in
a cocoon
Adults
* Live from 6 -
12 months
NOTE:
The flat Grain Beetle can be a primary
pest. But if you find this
beetle, you
know that other, more dangerous insects are in the grain.
Often you
find the Flat Grain Beetle in grain already damaged by
the Rice
Weevil.
ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH
Sitotroga cerealella
Olivier
<FIGURE 25>
51bp11a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Light,
yellow-brown
* 8-10mm long
* 15mm from tip of
wing to
wingtip
* Fringe on back
wings
WHERE IT LIVES
* Attacks all
grains in
storage and in
the field
* In all parts of
the world
LIFE CYCLE
* Adults do not
live long
and do not eat
Each female
adult lays
50-100 eggs
Eggs
* Laid on the
surface of grain
in the field or
in storage
<FIGURE 26>
51bp11b.gif (300x600)
Larvae
* Eat into kernel
after hatching
* Grow inside
kernel for 5 weeks
* Eat inside to
the seed coat
and they cut out
part of a
circle (door) in
the seed coat
<FIGURE 27>
51bp11c.gif (300x600)
Pupae
* Form inside a
cocoon near the
door cut by the
larvae
<FIGURE 28>
51bp11d.gif (300x600)
Adults
* Push out through
the door
prepared by
larvae
* Lay eggs on the
stored grain
or fly to the
fields and lay
eggs on grain
there
<FIGURE 29>
51bp11e.gif (400x600)
NOTE: PRIMARY PEST
RICE WEEVIL
Sitophilus oryzae L.
<FIGURE 30>
51bp12a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Reddish-brown or
black
* May have 4 light
spots on its back
* Long nose is
easy to identify
* 2.5mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In warm places
* In sorghum,
maize, and other
stored grain
HOW IT GROWS
* Female lays
300-400 eggs
<FIGURE 31>
51bp12b.gif (600x600)
Eggs
* Laid inside the
grain kernel
* Sealed into the
hole with secretion
which makes them
difficult to see
<FIGURE 32>
51bp12c.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Have no legs and
are white
* Grow inside
grain kernels
and do most of
the damage
* Stay in larval
stage about
5 weeks
<FIGURE 33>
51bp12d.gif (486x486)
Adults
* Leave the
kernels. Half kernel is
eaten and other
half is poor
quality
* Feed on the
seeds
* Looks like the
Granary Weevil, but
this weevil can
fly
NOTE: PRIMARY
PEST. It can fly.
It flies from grain storage places
to the fields
and back again. It can infest grain
again and
again.
INDIAN-MEAL MOTH
Plodia
interpunctella Hbn.
<FIGURE 34>
51bp13a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Reddish-brown
outer wings
* Whitish-gray
wings next to body
* 16mm from tip of
one wing to
tip of the other
* Easy to see in
grain
WHERE IT LIVES
* In broken grains
and flour.
Also can attack
whole gains
* In all parts of
world
HOW IT GROWS
* Grows from egg
to adult in
6-8 weeks
* Each female lays
200-300 eggs
Eggs
* Laid on food or
grain
* Hatch into
small, white larvae
<FIGURE 35>
51bp13b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Eat embryo or
germ of grain
* Spin thread
while they eat
* Dirty white
color
* Sometimes look
pink or green
* Spin a cocoon
Pupae
* Light brown
* Develop in a
cocoon
<FIGURE 36>
51bp13c.gif (486x486)
Adults
* Usually attack
grain already
attacked by
other insects
* Live less than
14 days
NOTE: Checking and
moving grain from time to time is good protection
against this
insect. Also, the Indian-Meal Moth is
attacked
by the
parasite Bracon hebetor Say.
CONFUSED FLOUR BEETLE
Tribolium confusum J. du Val
<FIGURE 37>
51bp14a.gif (600x600)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Shiny,
reddish-brown, flat
* 3-4mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In all parts of
the world
* In storage
places and flour mills
HOW IT GROWS
* Changes from egg
to adult in
6 weeks in warm
weather
* Female lays 450
eggs
* Eggs are sticky
and stick to
boxes, sacks,
and storage
containers
<FIGURE 38>
51bp14b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Larvae eat
flour, grain dust,
and broken
surfaces of grain
kernels
Pupae
* First white,
then change to
yellow and then
to brown
color
Adults
* Live about 1
year
DRUGSTORE BEETLE
Steaobium paniceum
L.
<FIGURE 39>
51bp15a.gif (486x486)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Small, fat,
reddish colored
* Body covered
with soft hairs
WHERE IT LIVES
* In many kinds of
stored grain
* In all parts of
the world
LIFE CYCLE
* Develops from
egg to adult
in 6-8 weeks
* Each female lays
about 100 eggs
Eggs
* Laid in any dry
food substance
<FIGURE 40>
51bp15b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Small and white
* Enlarged picture
<FIGURE 41>
51bp15c.gif (486x486)
Adult
* Looks like
cigarette Beetle
* Adults live only
2 to 4 weeks
NOTE: Protect grain
from this beetle by checking the stored grain
often.
This beetle never attacks grain unless the
grain
has been in
storage for a long time without being checked or
moved.
<FIGURE 42>
51bp15d.gif (486x486)
RED FLOUR BEETLE
Tribolium castaneum Hbst.
<FIGURE 43>
51bp16a.gif (540x540)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* 3-4mm long
* Looks like
Confused Flour Beetle
WHERE IT LIVES
* In warm
countries
* In grain dust
and broken grains
HOW IT GROWS
* Female lays 400
- 500 eggs
Eggs
* Laid in dust,
flour
<FIGURE 44>
51bp16b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* Stay in larval
stage 5 weeks
* Feed on stored
produce
* Whitish-yellow
color
* Has two, dark,
upturned, pointed
projections at
back end of body
Adults
* Eat and breed
the same way
as Confused
Flour Beetle
* Give terrible
smell and taste
to grain in
which they live
KHAPRA BEETLE
Trogoderma granarium Everts
<FIGURE 45>
51bp17a.gif (540x540)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Brown or black
color
* Body has many
fine, yellowish
hairs all over
* 1.5 - 3mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In stored grain
* In all parts of
the world,
particularly
warm places
HOW IT GROWS
* Grows from egg
to beetle in 4 - 6
weeks in good
growth conditions
* Female lays 40 -
70 eggs each
<FIGURE 46>
51bp17b.gif (540x540)
Larvae
* Can take up to a
year to hatch
* Yellow-white and
have many hairs
* Leave many hairs
in the grain
* Grow to 6mm in
the larval stage.
Takes about 3
weeks
* Are able to live
without food or
water for long
periods
* Appear on
surface of stored grain
* Crawl into
cracks of buildings and
bins.
Hard to reach even with
insecticide
Adults
* Life cycle can
take years while
under poor
conditions
* Breed quickly
under good conditions
* Live only about
14 days
NOTE: Primary Pest.
Grain damaged by the Khapra beetle looks
like grain
which has been
attacked by the Lesser Grain Borer.
CIGARETTE BEETLE
Lasioderma serricorne F.
<FIGURE 47>
51bp18a.gif (540x540)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Reddish-yellow
or brown
* Head bent down
toward body
* 3mm long
WHERE IT LIVES
* In stored
products all over
the world
* In grain left
too long in
storage in the
original sacks
LIFE CYCLE
* Develops from
egg to adult
in 6 to 8 weeks
* Female lays
about 100 eggs
<FIGURE 48>
51bp18b.gif (486x486)
Larvae
* See Picture
<FIGURE 49>
51bp18c.gif (486x486)
Pupae
* See Picture
<FIGURE 50>
51bp18d.gif (486x486)
Adult
* Looks like adult
Drugstore
Beetle
* Adults live from
2 to 4 weeks.
FLOUR OR GRAIN MITE
Acarus siro L.
<FIGURE 51>
51bp19.gif (540x540)
WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
* Pale, gray-white
color
* Smooth bodies
with lots of hairs
* Breed quickly
* Real size no
bigger than the dot
of an
"i"
WHERE IT LIVES
* In warm, wet
places
* In broken grain
and flour
WHAT TO LOOK FOR
* Fluffy,
light-brown masses on the floor
around sacks of
stored grain
These masses are
the old skins and dead
bodies of
mites. If you see these masses,
there are many,
many mites in the grain
WHAT MITES DO TO GRAIN
* They do not eat
much grain
* When there are
many mites, the grain gets warmer and wetter
* When there are
many mites, a bad smell develops in the grain
* Flour which has
had large numbers of mites in it is no good for
baking
WHAT TO DO ABOUT MITES
* Screen and fan
the grain if you find mites.
* Dry grain very
well before storing.
* Dust sacks of
flour or other milled cereal products with recommended
insecticide. Place sacks so they
do not rest directly
on the floor.
CONTROL OF INSECTS IN STORED GRAIN
INTRODUCTION
Adult insects are easy to see in grain.
They live outside the grain,
and they are darker in color.
Often a farmer waits until he sees adults
before he takes any steps to control insects or applies
insecticide.
This approach can be a mistake.
When the farmer sees adults, it usually
means the grain contains many more insects than the ones he
is seeing.
<FIGURE 52>
51bp20.gif (486x486)
Insect control should begin before the harvest.
And it must definitely
begin before the grain is put into storage.
There are many steps farmers
can take to protect their grain from pests.
Some of these steps involve
insecticides, but all of them depend upon thorough cleaning
of storage
bins and containers.
The first step a farmer should take is to plan an insect
control program.
His program should include, among other things:
*
finding out which insects are damaging his
grain.
*
drying and cleaning his grain very well.
*
asking an extension agent about
insecticides.
*
deciding if he has enough money to buy
insecticides.
The second step a farmer should take is to follow some
general guidelines
for cleaning and storing his grain.
Whether the storage area is old or new, it must be
clean. Most farmers
can save many grain losses by careful cleaning of storage
containers,
bins, and buildings.
And cleaning does not cost large amounts of money.
For just a little time and effort, the farmer can get better
returns on
the effort he puts into growing and harvesting his crop.
All equipment which touches the grain should be clean.
This includes
tools for harvesting and threshing.
It also means cleaning the carts
and wagons used for carrying the grain.
Cleaning and repairing should include:
*
sweeping out grain, grain dust, and dirt from
storage
bins,
buildings, or areas in the home where grain is
kept.
*
repairing cracks in floors, walls, and
ceilings where
insects might
get in or live.
*
removing pieces of grain and dust from
cracks, beams,
ledges, and other parts of the building.
*
patching any holes in the building and
making sure it is
watertight;
moisture must not get into the storage area.
Concrete and metal bins are easier to clean than wooden bins
and sacks.
But all containers should be cleaned as carefully as
possible.
Many farmers make the mistake of storing grain from a new
crop near
grain from an older crop.
If the grain from the old crop is full of
insects (and it usually is), the insects will spread to the
new grain
quickly. Also, grain
for eating and selling should never be put into
storage with grain which will be used to feed the
animals. Animal
grain usually sits around for a long time and is full of
insects.
<FIGURE 53>
51bp21.gif (486x486)
Sometimes farmers cannot find or afford the correct
insecticide. In
these cases, careful cleaning will help the problem.
In fact,
insecticides will not work properly unless they are used
under dry,
clean conditions. So
the following material presents information on
steps the farmer can take to control insects -- both with
and without
the use of insecticides.
CONTROLLING INSECTS WITHOUT INSECTICIDES
Traditional Methods
Farmers have been fighting insects for hundreds of
years. They accept
the fact that insects are going to eat and destroy a certain
amount of
their grain. Here
are some insect control methods farmers use:
<FIGURE 54>
51bp22.gif (600x600)
Sunning. Insects
leave
grain which is placed in
hot sunlight. They
do
not like heats higher than
40-44 [degrees] C.
The sunning
process, however, does not always
kill eggs and larvae which
are inside the kernels of grain.
Mixing Local Plants with Grain.
In many areas, farmers mix local plants
with grain.
Information about which plants, and which parts of the
plants, should be mixed with grain is passed on within the
family; the
plants differ from one part of the world to another.
Such natural
control methods, or methods which provide active control
without insecticide,
need to be looked at more closely.
Future editions of this manual
might include a chapter on using such plants and other
natural control
methods.
Mixing Sand or Wood-Ash with Grain.
This is another natural-control
method. Some farmers
mix sand or wood-ash with threshed grain to keep
insects from breeding.
The sand scratches the covering or cuticle of
the insect's body and the insect loses moisture through the
scratches.
If the grain is dry, insects will not be able to get enough
moisture
to replace the moisture lost though the scratches, and they
will die.
Smoking. Some
farmers store unthreshed grain on raised wooden platforms.
They build small smoky fires under the platforms.
Other farmers
store harvested grain in the roof of the building or shelter
used for
cooking. Both of
these methods use the smoke and heat of fires to
kill and drive insects out of the grain.
The heat from the fires also
helps to keep the grain dry and protects the grain from new
insect
attacks.
Storing in Airtight Containers.
This is the process of putting grain
into a closed container so that no air can enter the
grain. Insects in
the grain then die because there is not enough air
containing oxygen.
In some areas, farmers store grain in very dry underground
pits which
can be made quite airtight.
Other types of airtight storage containers
can be more difficult to build and maintain.
Airtight storage is talked
about more completely in the section on storage methods.
Storing Unthreshed Grain.
The husk on maize and the hull of rice offer
some protection from insect attack.
If the rice hull is hard and dry,
it is more difficult for insects to attack the grain
kernels. Many farmers
store their grain without threshing when they do not have
insecticides.
Improvement in Traditional Methods
It is very important to have a clean and waterproof building
for storing
the grain. If the
farmer is choosing a site for a new building, the
buildings should he placed as far away as possible from
grain standing in
the fields. This
helps protect against insects flying from the field to
the storage area.
The grain storage place should not be built near
places where animals are kept:
certain insects found near animals and
their food also attack stored grains.
<FIGURE 55>
51bp23.gif (540x540)
Most farmers know that insects are a problem, and will not
have to be
convinced. Or
perhaps it is better to say that some farmers may need to
be shown how insects infest grain; they must be convinced
that there is
really something they can do about insects.
For a farmer who has
looked upon insects in his grain as a part of his life for
years, the
biggest forward step he will take is realizing that there is
something
he can do about the problem.
There are some easy ways to show how insects can be kept out
of grain.
You probably use them in your work. Here is one way:
*
Take several small bags of grain, each of
which is
clean and
free of insects.
-- Place one
bag near the animal grain
-- Place one
bag beside grain that has been in
storage a
long time
*
Place one bag in a clean, cool, dry corner
away from
other
grain. Make sure this bag is not placed
directly
on the floor
and keep it away from the walls.
Insects will, of course, attack all these bags of
grain. What will be
interesting is how long it takes for the infestation to
develop in each
bag, and how much damage occurs in a given period of
time. It should
take longer for the infestation to develop in the clean
grain stored
away from other grains.
Also, if you want to use the same demonstration to show how
an improved
storage method protects against insects, place insect-free
grain, equal
to the amount in the other bags, in a small plastic
bag. Seal the bag
tightly and put it next to bags of grain which have been in
storage for
some time. All of
the other bags will have insects in them; this
one will not.
Following here is a checklist of steps which can be taken to
control
insects without using insecticides.
In fact, these rules for cleaning
and storing only dry grain should be followed even if insecticide
is
used. Insecticides
will not provide protection unless they are given
the right conditions in which to work.
Perhaps you will be able to adapt
this checklist to fit your situation and use it as you work
with farmers.
CONTROLLING INSECTS WITHOUT INSECTICIDES
A CHECKLIST
Suggestions for Use:
Pick out the points that will be most useful to
farmers in your area.
Translate and illustrate them as necessary.
*
Store grain away from wet areas.
*
Protect the stored grain from rain and
run-off.
*
Keep stored grain or grain containers out of
strong
sunlight. This will keep the
grain cooler. Warm
grain will
breed more insects.
*
Place stored grain containers or buildings
where winds
can help cool
the containers.
*
Keep the stored grain as far away from the
fields as
possible. This helps keep flying
insect pests from
flying to the
stored grain from the fields.
*
MAKE SURE THE STORAGE AREA IS CLEAN.
SWEEP ThE WALLS,
CEILINGS, AND
FLOORS AND GET OUT ALL DIRT, OLD GRAIN,
AND DUST
BEFORE YOU PUT NEW GRAIN IN.
*
Make sure the containers for the grain are
very clean.
*
Clean the grain well.
*
Dry the grain well.
*
Put only whole, healthy grains into storage.
Do not store
broken
grains.
*
If possible, place grain into special
containers which you
can seal
tightly.
*
Do not place sacks of grain near the
walls. Make sure
the sacks are
not placed directly on the floor.
Moisture
from the
ground will dampen the grain if the sacks are
left on the
floor.
*
Check your grain often.
*
Watch for flying beetles in the early
morning or late
afternoon.
*
Watch for moths anytime of day.
*
Hit a sack against the floor.
Then let it rest out of
direct
sunlight for a while. Then check to see
if
there are any
weevils on the outside of the sack.
*
Dump part of the grain out or take some out
from the
middle of the
storage container.
*
Put the grain through a sieve.
*
If a large number of insects is present,
dump all the
grain out on
a tray or plastic sheet under a hot sun.
Do not put
the grain directly on the ground.
*
Or put all the grain through a sieve and
remove the
insects.
Burn the insects so they can not return to
the grain.
*
Mix grain with sand and ash when you put it
into the
storage
containers. Sand and ash damage the
insects'
bodies, and
they die.
*
Store unthreshed grain on raised wooden
platforms and
build small
smoky fires underneath. The heat and
smoke
from the fire
help drive the insects away.
*
Plan for storing the next crop.
If you continue to
have trouble
with insects, see if there is a storage
method which
might be better. Also, find someone who
knows how to
use insecticide and get advice on your
problem.
INSECT CONTROL WITH INSECTICIDES
<FIGURE 56>
51bp26.gif (317x317)
Insecticides are poisons used for killing
insects. But
insecticides also can kill or
hurt humans and animals if they are not used
correctly. Use only
recommended insecticides
on clean, dry grain.
Insecticides
must always be used with care.
Most farmers know something about
insecticides. But
often they are not
aware of exactly what insecticides
should be used for or of the
differences among insecticides.
Farmers may use insecticides without knowing how to apply
the insecticide
they are using or on what materials that insecticide can be
used. Some
insecticides are safer than others; some insecticides can
poison grain as
well as insects. The
danger in insecticide use is that farmers do not have
enough information about insecticides to use them correctly
for their type of
grain and their storage situation.
For example, many farmers around the world
call all insecticides, DDT.
They are likely to go to market, pick up some DDT
powder, and use in ways and places which can lead to
sickness and even death.
This section of the manual presents information on
insecticides in a
form which should help you provide farmers in your area with
the information
they need to use insecticides appropriately and safely.
The use of insecticides cannot be separated from the kind of
storage
container and the purpose for which the grain will be
used. Some
insecticides can be used on grain for seed, but cannot be
used on grain
for food. Some
insecticides can be used for treating both kinds of grain.
The following is a basic discussion of types and kinds of
insecticides
used in grain storage work.
These insecticides also are discussed in
the section on storage methods.
TYPES OF INSECTICIDES
Many different poisons kill insects.
But there is a much smaller
number of poisons (insecticides) which are useful in grain
storage work.
Some insecticides are made from parts of plants.
Pyrethrum is an example
of this type. Some,
such as Cyanide, are inorganic chemicals; others are
man-made organic chemicals such as Malathion and BHC.
The insecticides available to farmers to use for grain
storage purposes
are of two major types
-- contact chemicals and fumigant gases.
These
insecticides can be bought in a number of forms
(formulations); they are
applied differently depending upon the type of grain and the
type of
storage.
Contact Chemicals.
These are the contact poisons:
the insect must
actually get these insecticides on its body.
The contact chemicals are
available in the following formulations:
Dusts
These contain a low concentration of insecticide mixed with
powder.
This makes them safer to handle than some of the other
formulations
available. Dusts
also:
*
are ready to use.
*
must be kept dry or they will not mix
evenly, and the
insecticide
will not work as long.
*
*
may be mixed with grain at the time of
storage. Use
only those
dusts, for example, Malathion and Lindane,
recommended
for this purpose.
Wettable Powders (Dispersible Powders)
These contain a high concentration of insecticide.
Wettable powders:
*
must be mixed with water before they can be
used.
*
require careful mixing.
*
are used to spray outside surfaces of sacked
grain,
storage
containers, or buildings.
*
are never used directly on grain.
*
can be applied with simple sprayers which
can be
purchased or
made.
Emulsion Concentrates
These are liquid concentrates which:
*
must be mixed with water before they can be
used.
*
contain a high amount of insecticide mixed
with
other
ingredients.
*
need special equipment to apply.
*
are more difficult for farmers to use.
Emulsions of pyrethrum or Malathion are available, and the
directions
for mixing are usually given on the labels of the
containers. But
farmers should know of the need for special equipment to
apply these,
so that they do not spend their money on a formulation of
insecticide
which they will not be able to use.
Other Forms. These
are liquid concentrates and powders which must be
used with special equipment.
These formulations are used with fogging
machines and smoke generators; they are not appropriate for
use by most
farmers.
REMEMBER: It is
important for the farmer to know which formulations
are available in his area, which of these formulations he
can use,
which he should not use, and how they should be applied.
Fumigants
<FIGURE 57>
51bp28.gif (285x285)
The second major category of insecticides is the
fumigants. Fumigants
are gases. Fumigants have
several advantages as an insect control method:
* Gas can enter all
the cracks in storage
buildings to kill
insects hiding there.
* Gas can get
between the tightly packed
grains in storage
and, in most cases,
can kill larval
stages within the kernels.
* Gas does not leave
marks on the grain as
some insecticides
do.
But farmers should also know that there are problems
involved in using
fumigants:
*
The choice of fumigant is very
important. Fumigants are
extremely
dangerous to man, but some are easier and safer
to use than
others. A fumigant must be chosen which
will
not leave poison in the grain and which is
relatively safe
for the
farmer to use.
MOST
FUMIGANTS ARE SAFE ONLY WHEN USED BY A SKILLED OPERATOR
*
Fumigants kill only insects which are
already in the
grain.
They do not protect grain from new attacks.
*
Fumigants must be used in airtight
containers. If the
farmer is
storing his grain in jute sacks, he will have
to find an
oil drum, or some other container which can
be made
airtight before he can fumigate his grain.
Or
he must be
able to cover his grain sacks with heavy
plastic and
fumigate in this way.
*
Fumigation may hurt the ability of seeds to
germinate.
Fumigants are available in the following forms:
Solid Fumigants[N].
These fumigants are in tablet or packet or pellet
form. The active
chemical is Aluminum
Phosphide. The
tablets release
Phosphine gas when moisture touches
them. Fortunately,
the tablets take
about three hours to release enough
poison gas to kill a person, so the
person who follows the rules for
fumigation carefully can use these
tablets safely. The
fumigant is
sold under the trade names Phostoxin,
Detia, and Celphos.
<FIGURE 58>
51bp29a.gif (486x486)
Liquid Fumigants and Low Boiling
Point Gases. Some of
these are
Carbon Tetrachloride, Ethylene
Dichloride, Ethylene Dibromide,
and Methyl Bromide.
They are all
dangerous to apply and must be applied
by trained people wearing full protective
clothing. Do not
recommend these formulations to farmers for individual
use. Warn very
strongly against them. They can kill
people, if used
incorrectly.
The number of insecticides which can be used on stored grain
products
is really not large.
Knowledge of these insecticides is important to
the farmer. And he
must have enough information about the insecticide
and its use so that he can use it safely.
Information on using insecticides with stored grain is
included in the
storage section of this manual (Volume 3).
SOME CLOSING NOTES
In more and more places around the world, farmers are able
to find and
buy some of the newer formulations for insect control.
Here are two
examples of insecticides which may be useful to control
flying insects
in the home or farm shed, though they are of no value in
stored grain.
<FIGURE 59>
51bp29b.gif (353x353)
* Vapona Pest Strip
-- This strip is hung
from the
ceiling. It contains the insecticide
Dichlorvos, which
is released slowly
into the air over
a period of some weeks.
* BAYGON -- This is
a trade name given to an
aerosol spray
formulation being seen in more
and more
places. This spray is handy to use
and is effective
for spraying storage buildings.
Although these formulations are not dangerous when used
correctly, they
can be harmful when used without proper directions.
BAYGON, for example,
must not be sprayed around food.
It is a good idea for you to know which formulations are
available in
your area and are likely to be picked up by farmers looking
for insecticides.
Often these formulations are brought in from other
countries,
and the containers are written in another language:
even a farmer who can
read his own language will not be able to read the
instructions and
warnings on the can.
If you keep in touch with the insecticides that are
available, you can prepare insecticide-use directions in
your own
language (s), or in picture language which would give uses
and non-uses
without words.
The following pages contain information on some of the more
important
grain storage insecticides.
Each insecticide is listed on a separate
page so that you can remove material on those most available
in your area.
Perhaps you can use the information to put together a short
leaflet on
insecticide use to hand out to farmers.
This is a good way to introduce
and encourage appropriate and safe use of insecticides.
Also included here are:
*
Recommended dosages and insecticides for use
with grain,
in storage
buildings, etc.
*
A sample of methods for applying
insecticide.
*
A checklist on when to use insecticides and
on how to
use them
safely.
*
A list of steps to take if a person is
poisoned by
insecticide.
The appendices to this manual contain a selection of
leaflets that have
been used, or are being used, by development workers in
various parts of
the world. Perhaps
they will give you ideas on how best to combine
material from this manual with knowledge of your area and
farmer need.
Additional information about insecticides and their
applications which
is of interest to you, but not necessarily to the farmer, is
included in
Appendix A.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
MALATHION
OTHER NAMES:
Malaphos, Malathon, Malphos, Cythion, Emmatos,
Carbophos, Mercaptolhion
TYPE:
Contact Chemical
FORMULATIONS:
Emulsion Concentrate, Wettable Powder, Dust,
Granules, Aerosol, Baits
WARNING: ONE OF
THE SAFEST INSECTICIDES FOR MAN TO USE.
DO NOT
USE OR PUT IN METAL CONTAINERS SUCH AS IRON.
CONTROLS:
Aphids, mites, flies, leaf hoppers, mealy bugs,
Japanese beetles, corn earworms, ants, spiders
and
many others. Some special grain storage notes
about
Malathion:
*
works well against Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle,
Rice and Granary Weevils.
*
does not work against the Red Flour Beetle
in
some areas.
*
does not control adult moths and mites as
well
as
BHC.
USE TO: MIX
WITH GRAIN. Apply as a dust to grain
when it goes
into
storage. Use 125 grams of Premium Grade
Malathion
1.0%
Dust per 100kg. It should be used only
with very
dry
grain. Malathion does not work well in
wet or
moldy
grain.
SPRAY
OR BRUSH ON BUILDINGS. It is unstable
on
cement
or whitewashed walls.
DUST
interior surfaces in contact with grain.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
PYRETHRUM
OTHER NAMES:
Pyrethrum is used with piperonyl butoxide
TYPE:
Contact Chemical
FORMULATIONS: Sprays
and Dusts
WARNING: IT IS
NOT DANGEROUS TO MAN, AND IT CAN BE USED NEAR
FOOD. BUT IT CAN CAUSE ALLERGIES
IN SOME PEOPLE.
CONTROLS: All
grain storage insects. They are not
resistant to
it.
USE TO: SPRAY
STORAGE AREAS. It is a good insect
repellant,
and
controls moths.
MIX
DUST DIRECTLY WITH GRAIN GOING INTO STORAGE.
NOTE: It costs a
lot. Pyrethrum is a natural insecticide.
It is
made from the
heads of a certain kind of flower. It
repells
insects, but
its power does not last long and breaks down in
oxygen, water,
or light. This is why piperonyl
butoxide or
another
stabilizer is added to the pyrethrum.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
LINDANE
OTHER NAMES:
Gammexane, Isotox, Gamma, Renesan, OKO, BHC (extremely
similar but not the same)
TYPE:
Contact Chemical
FORMULATIONS: Dust,
Wettable Powder
WARNING: NOT IMMEDIATELY
DANGEROUS TO MAN, BUT, IF YOU TOUCH IT
OFTEN,
YOUR BODY KEEPS THE POISON INSIDE. IF
YOUR BODY
HOLDS
TOO MUCH POISON, SICKNESS CAN RESULT.
ALWAYS
READ
THE INSTRUCTIONS ON THE CONTAINER, AND USE LINDANE
CORRECTLY.
REMEMBER:
*
DO NOT APPLY TO CROPS FOR FOOD WITHIN 30
DAYS
AFTER HARVEST.
*
IT IS POISON TO FISH AND HONEY BEES.
*
DO NOT USE ON CHICKENS OR CHICKEN HOUSES.
CONTROLS:
Aphids, lygus bugs, grasshoppers, roaches, mange
mites,
termites. It is very good against
weevils which
have
developed resistance to BHC and against the audlt
stage
of the Angoumois Grain Moth.
USE TO: TREAT
YOUR SEED FOR PLANTING. Use 113g to
454g
to
treat the seed required to plant 25 acres.
Store
treated seed below 21 [degrees] C and use within three months of
treatment. Dosage should not go
above 2.5 ppm on cob
maize
and above 5 ppm on unthreshed sorghum.
DUST
on unshelled groundnuts; unthreshed sorghum, bags
of
maize, wheat, rice, maize in cribs.
SPRAY
STORAGE AREAS.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
DICHLORVOS
OTHER NAMES: DDVP,
Vapona
TYPE:
Contact Chemical and Fumigant
FORMULATIONS: Spray,
Pest Strip
WARNING:
CAN BE DANGEROUS TO PEOPLE AND ANIMALS IF
NOT
HANDLED CORRECTLY.
HANDLE
PEST STRIP WITH GLOVES.
DO NOT
LET PEST STRIP TOUCH FOOD.
CONTROLS: Moths,
beetles. It is very poisonous to flying
moths
in a tight building, but kills
beetles more slowly.
USE TO: SPRAY
STORAGE PLACES to kill flying insects.
It
does
not last long.
Provide control of flying insects by hanging the
VAPONA
PEST STRIP. The strips give off poison
for
about
3 months (depending upon climate).
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
DDT
OTHER NAMES:
Chlorophenothene, Accotox, Anofex, Neocid, Neocidol,
Pentachlorin, Sillortox.
TYPE:
Contact Chemical, long-lasting.
FORMULATIONS:
Emulsion Concentrate, an aerosol, granules, dusts.
It is
also sold mixed with other pesticides.
WARNING: *
DDT IS NOT IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO
MAN. BUT
SINCE THIS POISON DOES STAY ON THINGS FOR A LONG
TIME, THERE IS SOME CONCERN ABOUT WHETHER DDT
CAN
HURT PEOPLE WHO USE IT VERY OFTEN AND FOR
A
LONG TIME. USE IT CAREFULLY.
*
DO NOT USE NEAR FOOD.
*
DO NOT USE IN AREAS WHERE IT MAY POLLUTE THE
WATER
SUPPLY.
*
DO NOT USE TO DUST SACKS OF STORED GRAIN.
*
DO NOT USE WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS OVER 90
[degrees] F.
*
DO NOT USE ON DAIRY ANIMALS OR IN DAIRY
BUILDINGS
OR
AROUND POULTRY.
*
DO NOT STORE IN IRON CONTAINERS.
*
DO NOT USE TO DUST INSIDE OF GRAIN STORAGE
CONTAINERS.
CONTROLS:
Codling moths, flea beetles, leaf hoppers, corn earworms,
corn
borers, thrips, flies, mosquitoes, leaf miners,
Japanese beetles, spittle bugs, and others.
It works
well
against beetles, in some areas, but in other places
beetles have developed resistance.
USE TO:
PROTECT YOUR STORAGE BUILDING against insect attack.
Apply
the DDT either by spraying or painting it on
with a
brush. Repeat the treatment every six
to
eight
weeks.
NOTE: DDT no longer
works against some insects.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
B H C
OTHER NAMES:
Benzene Hexachloride, hch, hoch
TYPE:
Contact Chemical, lasts a long time.
FORMULATIONS:
Emulsion Concentrate, Wettable Powder, Dust and Smoke.
Sometimes it is sold mixed with other pesticides.
WARNING: SAFE
TO USE IN THE CORRECT DOSAGES. READ
DIRECTIONS
CAREFULLY. NEVER USE MORE THAN
THE DIRECTIONS SAY
TO
USE.
*
DO NOT USE ON OR NEAR CATTLE OR PLACES WHERE
CATTLE LIVE.
*
DO NOT FEED TREATED FORAGE OR CROPS TO
LIVESTOCK.
*
DO NOT ALLOW IT TO POLLUTE WATER SUPPLY.
*
DO NOT USE ON ROOT CROPS.
IN MANY FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES, BHC CAUSES A FUNNY TASTE TO DEVELOP.
ROOT CROPS ABSORB AND HOLD THE FLAVOR.
TOO MUCH
BHC
CAN HURT GERMINATION, AND SEED GROWTH.
*
DO NOT STORE NEAR ANY PRODUCE THAT WILL
ABSORB
THE
SMELL OF THE INSECTICIDE.
*
IT IS POISON TO FISH AND HONEY BEES.
CONTROLS:
Grasshoppers, ticks, chiggers, aphids, lygusbugs,
spittle bugs, thrips, fleabeetles, leafhoppers,
armyworms, wire worms, flies, mosquitos, ants,
termites, and others.
USE TO:
SPRAY OR DUST THE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OF
GRAIN STORAGE
BUILDINGS. Keep animals away
while you are working
with
BHC.
MIX
WITH SEED that is going to be used for planting.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
DIELDRIN
OTHER NAMES: HEOD
TYPE:
Contact Insecticide.
FORMULATIONS:
Emulsion Concentrate (EC), Wettable Powder (WP),
Dust, and Granules.
WARNING: DO
NOT TOUCH. IT CAN BE ABSORBED THROUGH
THE SKIN.
IT
IS EXTREMELY DANGEROUS TO MAN IF NOT USED CORRECTLY.
* DO NOT APPLY DIRECTLY TO
ANIMALS OR LET ANIMALS
EAT TREATED CROPS.
* DO NOT DUMP EXTRA SOLUTION
INTO LAKES, STREAMS,
OR PONDS. IT WILL KILL
FISH. PEOPLE WHO EAT
THESE FISH WILL GET VERY SICK.
* IT IS POISON TO BEES.
* DO NOT USE TO TREAT GRAIN OR
ANY PRODUCT TO
BE USED FOR FOOD, ANIMAL FEED, OR OIL PURPOSES.
USE TO:
Protect storage buildings against insect attack.
INSECTICIDE INFORMATION SHEET
PHOSTOXIN
OTHER NAMES:
Celphos, Detia, Delicia, Phosphine
TYPE:
Fumigant
FORMULATIONS:
Pellets, tablets, or packets
WARNING: VERY
DANGEROUS.
* THESE TABLETS GIVE OFF A GAS
WHICH CAN
KILL A MAN IN A FEW MINUTES.
* THIS INSECTICIDE MUST ONLY BE
USED IN
AIRTIGHT SITUATION OR CONTAINERS.
* TALK TO SOMEONE WHO KNOWS HOW
TO USE
PHOSTOXIN IF YOU HAVE NOT USED THIS
FUMIGANT BEFORE.
CONTROLS:
Weevils, grain beetles, grain borers, flour
beetles, cadelle, flour moths, grain moths
and
others.
USE TO:
Fumigate grain in airtight conditions.
Fumigation must continue for at least 72
hours. This poison kills the
insects present
in
the grain, but does not protect the
grain from attack again.
RECOMMENDED INSECTICIDES AND DOSAGES
FOR MIXING DIRECTLY WITH FOOD-GRAINS:
Malathion --
120 grams of 1.0% Dust for each 200kgs of grain.
Lindane
-- 120 grams of 0.1% Dust for each 200kgs
of grain.
Pyrethrum --
120 grams of 0.2% pyrethrins plus 1.0% piperonyl
butoxide. Dust for each 200kg of
grain.
FOR MIXING DIRECTLY WITH SEED-GRAINS:
It is possible to use more insecticide on grain to be used
only for seed
than can be used on grain for food.
If there is any chance the grain
will be used for food, use only the Malathion, Lindane, or
Pyrethrum at
the dosage recommended for food grain.
If the farmer is certain the grain will be used for seed, he
can use:
Malathion,
Lindane, or Pyrethrum -- 2 to 5 times more
Dust than can be used for food grain.
DDT -- 100
grams of 3 or 5% DDT Dust for each 100kg
of grain.
IMPORTANT: There may
be other insecticides available in your area
which can
be used for grain-storage work. Make
sure
you know
what these insecticides are and how to use
them.
FOR SPRAYING STORAGE BUILDINGS:
Note before spraying:
*
Always clean the building before spraying.
*
Dispersible Powders (DP) are better than
Emulsion
Concentrates
(EC) for spraying on cement, brick,
stone, or
whitewashed surfaces.
Malathion -- Mix
400 grams of 25% DP or 200 milliliters
of
50% EC in 5 liters of water.
Lindane ---- Mix
200 grams of 50% DP or 500 milliliters
of
20% EC in 5 liters of water.
DDT -------- Is
sometimes used to spray buildings. It
must never be used directly on food.
Lindane/DDT- Mix
100 grams of Lindane 50% DP and 200 grams
of
DDT 50% DP in 5 liters of water.
OR
Mix
250cc of Lindane 20% EC and 400cc
of
DDT 25% EC in 5 liters of water.
All of these dosages will spray 100 sq.m.
If a larger area must be sprayed,
mix more insecticide.
Reapply the spray as needed.
IMPORTANT: There may
be other insecticides available in your area
which can
be used for grain-storage work. Make
sure
you know
what these insecticides are and how to use
them.
APPLYING INSECTICIDES
<FIGURE 60>
51bp41.gif (600x600)
NOTE TO DEVELOPMENT WORKERS ON APPLYING INSECTICIDES
Many farmers in your area will have trouble following
directions for
measuring correct dosages of insecticides.
This is true because the
directions often require exact weight measures.
Therefore, it is a good idea for you to figure out a simple
measure
which farmers can use for their storage containers.
For example:
*
1-1/2 matchboxes of insecticide for each
standard-size
area basket
granary
*
1 empty sardine can of insecticide for each
metal
bin.
These are only examples, of course.
You should figure out the dosage
depending upon the kind of insecticide, the types of
measures (matchboxes,
tin cans, etc.) farmers are likely to have, and on the kinds
of
storage container most used in your area.
CONTROLLING INSECTS BY USING INSECTICIDE
A CHECKLIST
Suggestions for Use:
Pick out the points that will be most useful to
farmers in your area.
Translate and illustrate them as necessary.
Add
the names and dosages of those insecticides most likely to
be used by
farmers in the area.
Insecticides are poisons used for killing insects.
There are many types
of insecticides.
Some insecticides can be added directly to grain;
others may be sprayed around grain storage areas or on the
outside of the
containers, but should never be placed directly on the
grain. Some
insecticides are liquids; some insecticides are
powders. Some insecticides
are gases which you use by adding them to the grain, sealing
the
container up tight, and letting the fumes of the poison gas
kill the
insects in the grain.
Never use an insecticide until you are sure you know how it
should be
used and all the rules. for applying it.
Insecticides are not magic.
They should be used with clean, dry grain
in good storage conditions if they are to work well.
To use insecticides effectively for storage, you should:
*
Find out which insecticide to use for each
purpose.
*
Know how to use and handle insecticides
properly.
*
Have good storage buildings and containers.
*
Spray the walls of the storage building to
kill insects
hiding in
cracks in the ceiling and floor.
*
Dust the storage containers in and out with
the appropriate
insecticide.
*
Mix insecticide into the grain before
putting the grain
into
storage. To do this, you can put the
grain in a
pile in a
place protected from wind. Add the
right
insect poison
from a tin can with holes punched in the
top.
Turn the grain over and over with a shovel
to mix
the poison
with the grain. IMPORTANT:
BE CAREFUL TO
USE THE
CORRECT INSECTICIDE. IF YOU ARE NOT
CERTAIN IT
IS CORRECT,
ASK YOUR EXTENSION AGENT.
*
Check the grain after it has been in storage
for some time.
You may have
to add more insecticide. Poisons only
remain
dangerous to
insects for a period of time.
To use insecticides safely you must:
*
Read the directions on insecticide
containers carefully.
It will give
you correct ways to use the insecticide and
tell you what
to do in case of an accident.
*
Make sure the mixture is correct for its
purpose. Using
a wrong
insecticide can poison the grain.
*
Do not use more than the recommended dose.
*
Wear rubber gloves when using insecticide.
*
Wash your hands with a lot of running water
after you
use
insecticide. Do this right away if your
hands
touch the
poison.
*
Take off any clothing that has touched the
poison.
*
Do not eat, drink, or smoke while you are
using poison.
*
Label poison containers so that you know
what is inside.
*
Keep containers away from children and
animals.
*
Bury or burn all empty insecticide
containers. If you
bur them, be
sure they will not pollute underground
water
sources.
HELPING SOMEONE WHO HAS BEEN POISONED BY
INSECTICIDE
1.
HEADACHE WEAKNESS
NAUSEA SWEATING
DIZZINESS VOMITING
These are signs
of poisoning.
2. IF:
The person feels sick while using an
insecticide or soon
afterward
THEN:
Get the poisoned person to the doctor as
soon as possible.
Find the insecticide container or label so
the doctor will know
which insecticide
poisoned the person.
3. IF:
The person swallowed a poison
and if
he is awake
and
he can't see
a doctor right away
THEN:
Mix a tablespoonful of salt in a glass of
warm water
and make
the victim vomit. Or stick your finger
down
the
person's throat. Make him vomit!
Make the
victim lie down. Keep him warm, and do
not
let him
move until you can get him to the doctor.
4. IF:
The person spilled an insecticide
concentrate or oil solution
on his skin
or clothing, get the clothing off and wash the
skin with
soap and plenty of water.
THEN:
Get him to the doctor as soon as possible.
5. IF:
The person is overcome by breathing the
gases of a fumigant.
THEN:
ACT QUICKLY!
*
Get the victim outdoors or to a room free of
gas.
*
Lay victim on the ground.
*
Give artificial respiration if needed.
Call a doctor as soon as you can.
People using fumigants should have
kits which contain treatment for poisoning by the fumigant
which is
being used.
IMPORTANT: ALWAYS
TRY TO GET THE VICTIM TO A DOCTOR QUICKLY.
ALWAYS
HAVE THE INSECTICIDE CONTAINER READY TO SHOW
THE
DOCTOR. TREATMENT OFTEN DEPENDS UPON
THE TYPE
OF
INSECTICIDE THAT POISONED THE PERSON.
2 Rodents
Rodents in many countries are healthy enough to provide a
meat source for
humans. In many
cases, this is because they feed so well on the farmers'
grain.
Rodents damage crops in the fields and in storage.
They can eat a lot of
grain. They make the
stored grain dirty while they are eating it.
They
damage buildings, storage containers, and many other things
on the farm.
Rodents also carry diseases which people can catch from
eating and handling
grains the rodents have contaminated (made dirty).
There are many kinds of rodents, but rats and mice do the most
damage to
stored grain.
STORED GRAIN RODENTS
<FIGURE 61>
51bp47.gif (437x437)
The type of rat and mouse
may differ depending upon
the country or the area.
But, in many parts of
the world, there are
three important rodents
which can be found moving
from house to fields to
storage looking for food,
water, and good living
conditions. These
three
are:
Rattus Norvegicus
Also called Sewer Rat, Norway Rat, Common Rat, or Brown
Rat. This is the
largest of the three.
The adult rat weighs about 330 grams and is very
strong. It actively
looks for grain in the field and in storage.
It also
burrows into and near farm buildings.
Called a brown rat, it may also be
black. It has a
blunt nose.
Rattus Rattus
Also called Roof Rat, Ship Rat, Black Rat, or Alexandrine
Rat. This rat
weighs about 250 grams when fully grown.
It has a long tail and a
pointed nose. These
rats can be brown, grey, black, or light brown.
These rats like to climb more than they like to dig.
They can climb
outer walls of concrete, perpendicular pipes, wires, and
trees. In
many areas, Rattus Rattus is the most dangerous stored grain
rodent.
Mus Musculus
This is the well-known house mouse.
It weighs only 16 grams.
It has a
long tail and pointed nose.
Mice are usually brown-grey in color.
Most
farmers are so used to seeing mice around that they may not
be aware of
the damage mice can cause until the mice have multiplied
into great numbers.
Mice eat a lot of grain.
Also, because they usually eat only part of the
whole grain, mice ruin even more grain than they eat.
<FIGURE 62>
51bp48a.gif (437x437)
Rats and mice have big families.
Most of the young rodents die before
they are grown. But
the adults reproduce so quickly that it does not take
long for rats and mice to become a big problem for a farmer.
HABITS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF STORED GRAIN RODENTS
<FIGURE 63>
51bp48b.gif (353x353)
Fortunately, if the farmer understands
how rats and mice live, and if he knows
what rodents will and will not do, there
are many things he can do to fight rodents.
On the next page are some important
things to know about rodents:
* Rats and mice usually do the same things every day at the
same time.
They are most active from sunset until about
midnight.
They also move around at certain other hours
during the day and
night. If grain is stored in a dark,
cool place, they
will go in at any time of day.
* Rodents always go the same way.
When a rodent is going
from his nest to
eat grain from storage, he always goes
by the same
path. He chooses his paths so that he
will
be running beside
walls or stacks. He remains behind
things (out of
sight) as much as possible. If the food
is out in an open
space, the rodent runs out, grabs it,
and runs back to
his path.
* Rodents stay away from new things.
If a farmer places
food on a rodent
path, some rodents will not eat it because
it was not there
before. After it has been there for
some
time, and the
rodent is used to seeing it, he will eat it.
* Rodents can climb.
Rats and mice can climb any straight
up-and-down surface
on which they can find places for their
toenails.
Vines, drainpipes, and wires are good
runways for
rats and mice.
Rats can reach about 32cm up a wall and can
do a standing jump
of almost 60cm. They can do a running
jump as high as
90cm. Even a mouse can do a running
jump
of 60cm.
* Rodents can swim.
They are not afraid of water.
They look
for drains under
water. Piping systems underground are
often
travelled by rats.
* Some rats can dig.
Rats and mice live close to food and water.
The roof rat likes
to nest in ceilings, but the Norway rat digs
under the
ground. Rats dig down along a
wall. If something
blocks the digging,
they stop. They do not go around the
thing which is in
the way.
* Rodents must use their teeth.
The front teeth grow until the
rodent dies.
The teeth will grow 10-12cm a year.
Rats must
gnaw things all the
time to keep wearing their teeth down.
* Rodents like some foods more than others.
Some of the foods
they like are meat,
grain, eggs, and potatoes.
* Rodents use their body hairs and whiskers to touch
with. They
do not see as well
as humans do, and they cannot see colors.
They hear very
well. They can smell other rats; they
can
recognize certain
rats by smelling the pathways and burrows.
* Rats and mice always can be found near man.
There have been
large programs to
kill rats and get them out of certain areas.
But the rats always
return. It is not likely that a farmer
will be able to
free his farm of rats completely. But
he can
and should control
the numbers of rats and mice that live on
his farm and eat
his grain.
FINDING RODENTS ON THE FARM
A farmer must know where rats are before he can fight
them. And there are
things a farmer can look for which will tell him where
rodents are living
and show him their pathways and homes.
Holes, Nests, and Burrows
Rodent holes are usually found outside houses and
buildings. These holes
also appear inside in soft foundations or earth floors.
To see if a hole
is being used all the time, the farmer can block it lightly
with a piece
of earth. If the
earth has been moved, the farmer will know the hole is
being used. Holes in
use are free of dust and spider webs.
They look
used.
Mouse holes (2.5cm in diameter) are smaller than rat holes
(7.5cm) and
also are found inside and outside.
Rodent nests also can be found outside and inside.
Outside, nexts are often
made of grass or leaves and are located near garbage and
rubbish piles.
Inside, nests are made of paper, dry hay, straw, shredded
cloth, and so on.
Norway rats like to live in the ground.
Their burrows (underground nests)
can be found along the outside walls of buildings and in
dirt basements.
Some of the burrows are away from buildings in brush,
bushes, and piles
of dirt. Often these
burrows are joined under the ground.
Runways and Smears
Rodents use the same paths.
So, after a number of days of using the same
path outside, rats make trails in the grass.
Search for these paths in
areas where the running rat would feel most protected.
On dirt, the runway
may appear as a clean-swept bath 5.7.5cm wide.
Sometimes a runway which is used often is marked by a greasy
smear from the
oil and the dirt that rats and mice have on their
bodies. Check for these
smears around gnawed holes, along pipes, on edges of stairs,
along walls
or other places a rodent might run.
Mouse runways are harder to find because they are smaller.
Footprints and Tail Marks
These are found when rodents have been running over dusty or
wet places.
Some farmers will find tracks on the surface of grain
sacks. Rat tracks
are large: the back
foot of the Norway rat can leave a print 37mm long.
Mouse footprints are much smaller and harder to find.
Droppings
<FIGURE 64>
51bp51a.gif (437x437)
Each kind of rodent drops a different shape of feces from
his body. The
farmer should check for droppings near runways, holes,
corners, food, and
other places he feels rodents would go.
New droppings often are shiny and wet-looking.
The color is usually black,
but changes depending upon what the animal eats.
The number of the droppings
can give some idea of how many rodents are eating the
grain. It is wise
for the farmer to think in terms of more rodents than
droppings. Some
droppings may be eaten by insects, and some rodents will run
by without
leaving droppings.
Damage and Gnaw Marks
<FIGURE 65>
51bp51b.gif (437x437)
Rats and mice must use their teeth all the time.
The farmer should check for gnaw marks on his
buildings and produce.
Also, if he stores in
sacks, he must check the center of his sacked
storage.
Smell
Rats and mice leave a smell in the room and in the
grain. It is a very
obvious sign that rodents are present.
CONTROLLING RODENTS WITHOUT USING POISON
Rats and mice need food, water, and places to hide.
Rodents usually choose
to live where these things are available close
together. They do not
like to travel far from home to find food and water.
They like to live
beneath wooden floors near chicken houses, barns, granaries,
corn-cribs.
They live in piles of wood, lumber, and trash, and in straw
hay. Rodents
need room to grow undisturbed.
Farmers who use their knowledge of rodents' habits and
characteristics can
fight rodents by not giving them food, water, and places to
live. Keeping
cats and dogs to chase and kill rodents will help, but not
enough.
<FIGURE 66>
51bp52a.gif (437x437)
The three most important things farmers can do to control
rats and mice
without using poison are to keep the stored grain area
clean; to rodent-proof
houses, storage bins, and sheds so that rodents cannot get
into them;
and to set out traps.
Keep the Farm and Storage Area as Clean as Possible
<FIGURE 67>
51bp52b.gif (437x437)
* Do not pile
food or trash around the outside
or inside of
farm buildings.
* Bury or burn
all garbage and old food away
from the house
or storage place.
* Place all food
items in covered containers.
* Store grain
sacks off the floor.
* Sweep out all
dirt, dust, straw, old
cloth that
rodents might nest and
hide in.
* Cover dirt
floors with a thin layer of
mortar, if
possible. This keeps rats
from digging
up through the floors.
* Keep the grass
cut short around all
farm
buildings. Rodents like to
hide in tall
grasses.
* Cut any tree
limbs which touch windows
to keep rats
from climbing the trees
and jumping in
through the windows.
Rodent-Proofing
This simply means the farmer must store his grain so that
the rats and
mice either cannot get in or have to work very hard to do
so.
* Construct
granaries of mud. Farmers in some areas
have found
these are not
attacked by rodents too much, especially when
they are built
off the ground. In other words, storing
grain
above the ground
helps keep rodents away.
Place cribs
for grain storage, such as the
one described
in this manual, at least 75cm
above the
ground -- because rats can jump.
Put barriers
on the legs of the cribs so
that the
rodents can not climb the legs.
These barriers
are called rat baffles or
rat
guards. Baffles can be made from tin
cans.
The instructions for making these
baffles are on
a separate page at the end
of this
section.
<FIGURE 68>
51bp53a.gif (437x437)
* Never place a
bicycle or other piece of equipment against
storage
places. Rodents use such items as
ladders to climb
into the
stored grain.
<FIGURE 69>
51bp53b.gif (437x437)
* Build storage
buildings or containers on a
concrete base
at least 50cm high. The
floor should
be concrete. If the bin is
made of tin
sheet, the sheet should be
fixed in
concrete. Farmers should place
sheet metal
bands around mud or cement
silos to
prevent rodents from climbing.
Some mudblock
constructions use fired
bricks at the
bottom levels because
rodents cannot
gnaw through them.
* Make sure
doors and grain chutes fit tightly. A
wooden door
should have a
thick metal sheet along the bottom to stop
rodents from
eating through. Grain chutes sometimes
are
packed with
mud.
* Cover all
windows and large openings with heavy wire netting.
Wire netting
with an 8mm mesh is a good size. Holes
in a
roof made of
corrugated tin should be filled with cement
mortar.
* Cover the ends
of any pipes which enter the building where
grain is
stored with wire netting.
Setting Traps for Rats and Mice
Traps can be very effective if correctly placed and
used. They need to
be regularly maintained.
They may be used where poison is hard to get.
Also, traps are much safer to use very near stored grains in
houses and
storage buildings.
Rodents run out, get food, and carry it back to
where they are going to eat it.
They walk over the poison and pick it
up on their feet and bodies.
Then they walk over grain or food and so
put poison on it.
So, for a small farmer whose grain is not well-covered,
traps may be a better way to fight rodents.
Farmers in many parts of the world already use traps of
different kinds.
One method is to hang a maize cob over a five-gallon tin of
water. The
maize cob swings freely.
When the rat reaches for it, he loses his balance,
falls into the water and drowns.
This trap works if the number of rodents is not too
great. A small-scale
farmer can easily put several water traps around his storage
area.
The best traps consist of a base, a spring and trigger and
heavy wire. The
heavy wire is bent back and held by a spring.
The spring is released when
a rodent steps on the trigger.
The wire snaps down on
the rodent. These
traps can be made, but it usually requires too much time to
make enough
traps.
On the other hand, traps can be expensive if a farmer needs
many of them.
The number of traps he needs depends upon whether he is
seeking to control
rodents in his grain fields, in his storage area, in his
home, or in all
these places. He can
protect his grain best by controlling rodents at all
these points. So a
farmer has to figure the number and kind of traps he
needs. There are a
number of kinds available:
Snap Traps (Also Called Wood Traps or Breakback Traps).
These have a flat
wooden base. They
kill with a heavy wire which is pulled back by a spring.
When a rat or mouse touches the trigger, the wire comes down
over the rat,
breaking its back,
<FIGURE 70>
51bp54.gif (437x437)
Snap traps come in a number of sizes.
The trap for a rat should be about
9 x 22cm. The traps
for mice need to be only 5 x 10cm. Some
farmers
place pieces of food (bait) in these traps to attract mice
and rats.
Putting food in the traps is not necessary if the farmer
places the trap
in a rat runway.
Steel Traps. These
traps have a base with a trigger and two steel jaws.
When a rat steps on the platform and releases the trigger,
the jaws snap
together. A steel
trap with 9cm jaws is good for rats.
The problem with
steel traps is that rats usually do not die, but are
caught. This means
the farmer must kill the rat himself.
<FIGURE 71>
51bp55.gif (437x437)
Tunnel, Box, and Cage Traps.
These do not use bait.
They are placed in
runways and other places where the rats and mice go.
Only rats and mice
can enter these traps.
And they cannot get out.
After the farmer has an idea of how many of which traps he
needs, he must
figure the cost of traps.
Points he should consider:
* Buying the
traps requires money. How much would it
cost
to buy all the
traps?
* Traps can be
used over again.
* Traps can be
repaired and do not have to be replaced
often.
* It takes time
to bait, set, empty, and re-set traps.
And this must
be done often, especially if the trap has
food in
it. Rodents do not like old or moldy
food.
Doing all this
takes a lot of time.
* How much would
it cost to put poison out instead of traps?
Are the right
poisons available? Putting out poison
requires
making special
boxes to hold the poison, buying
the poison,
setting it out, etc. Would it be
cheaper to
use poison?
Would it be easier?
* If there are a
lot of rodents to control, would it be
cheaper for
the farmer to use a combination of traps and
poison?
Traps could be placed in areas, such as the
house,
where poisons
are not a good idea. Poison could be
used
in the fields
and other areas where rodents are appearing
in great
numbers. After many rats are poisoned,
traps
can be set to
provide continuing control.
If traps are to be part of the farmer's rodent control
program, there are
certain things he must know about traps:
Size and Condition of the Trap
* Mice can take
the food from a rat trap without getting
caught.
It is important to place mouse-size traps
where
there are
signs of mice and rat-size traps where rats are
running.
Snap traps can
be used without bait if the platform or
base is made
larger so that the rat releases the trigger
by simply
stepping on the platform.
<FIGURE 72>
51bp56a.gif (437x437)
Make the trap bigger by fastening a
4cm-square piece of
thin metal,
screen, or cardboard to the trigger of
the bait
holder.
* Traps should
be kept clean, so they will work well.
* If a lot of
bait is being taken, and rats and mice are
not being
caught, the trap probably needs fixing.
Check for bent
or rusted triggers, weak springs, or
loose wires.
Baiting the Traps
Snap traps often are used with bait to encourage the rat to
come to
the trap.
* Bait may be any food rats like to eat.
* Use a piece of food about the size of the end of a man's
finger.
* Make sure the bait is fastened down very well.
If the
bait is not held
down well, the rat will steal the bait
and run away.
* Food baits should be changed every three days.
Rats do
not like old
food. Change from one kind of bait to
another.
Placing the Traps
<FIGURE 73>
51bp56b.gif (437x437)
Here is where the knowledge of rodent habits becomes very
useful.
Farmers will usually catch most rodents the first
night. Therefore,
put out enough traps. Not every trap will catch a rat;
the farmer should expect this.
The farmer should:
* Place baited traps very near the rodent runways he has
found.
* Place traps near the walls at right angles to the wall.
The trigger end
should be nearest the wall so that the
trap will attract a
rodent running from either direction.
* Cover the traps with straw, dust,or other material which
hides all of the
trap except for the bait. This is done
only when there is
no danger that people and animals
will step on the
trap.
* Set the base of the trap right into the floor if the floor
is dirt.
* Place baited traps near holes, nests, and burrows. If the
area is one where
people or animals are likely to go, the
farmer should put a
cover over the trap so that it will
be available to
nothing but rats and mice.
* Place unbaited traps or expanded-trigger traps right in
the rodent runways.
Boards or boxes can be placed beside
and behind the
traps to guide rodents into them. Traps
are also placed in
burrows, hole openings, and corners.
For roof rats and
mice, also place traps on shelves,
beams, pipes, and
other high places
Many farmers will decide that the best control program for
them
will use all of the methods discussed above, plus poison, to
kill
the rodents.
<FIGURE 74>
51bp57.gif (353x353)
CONTROLLING RATS WITH POISON
Using poisons to control rodents is cheap,
in most places, and effective.
BUT RODENTICIDES (POISONS WHICH KILL RATS
AND MICE) CAN POISON HUMANS AND OTHER
ANIMALS AS WELL. IT
IS VERY IMPORTANTS
THEREFORE, THAT FARMERS KNOW WHICH
POISONS TO USE AND HOW TO USE THEM.
There are two kinds of poison used for
killing rodents: acute poisons and
anticoagulant poisons.
Acute Poisons
These are also called single-dose poisons.
Rodents need to eat only a
few mouthfuls of this poison. Death occurs quickly --
usually within a
half hour.
The most common of the acute poisons are zinc phosphide,
arsenious oxide,
and sodium fluoroacetate (also called 1080).
Some tropical countries are
also using thallium sulphate, yellow phosphorous, aluminum
phosphide,
calcium cyanide, strychnine, Norbomide, Eastrix, and
Antu.
Some of
these are only good for mice, some for rats.
This manual discusses only
some of the most common poisons effective against grain
storage rodents.
If one of the other poisons mentioned is being made
available to farmers
in your area, you might prepare information sheets on the
proper use of
that poison -- such as the ones attached to the end of this
section.
Anticoagulant Poisons
These poisons must be eaten by rodents for a number of days
before death
occurs. They are used at a low dosage. In other words, there
is only a
little mixed in with the food each day. These poisons cause
rodents to
bleed inside their bodies and die.
<FIGURE 75>
51bp58.gif (437x437)
The best known anticoagulant poison is Warfarin. Others are
Coumatetralyl
(Racumin), Chlorophacinone, Pival, Fumarin, PMP,
Diphacinone, Rodafarin
(India).
Choosing a Poison
The kind of rodent is important when choosing a poison. What
kills one
kind of rat may not kill another kind. The farmer should be
able to
recognize which types of rodent are attacking his stored
grain. There
are some poisons which can kill a number of types. Each of
the major ones
mentioned in this manual will control Norway rats, roof
rats, and mice.
The farmer has to decide whether to use an acute poison or
an anticoagulant.
Acute poisons kill more rodents and kill them quickly.
But
many of the rodents will not feed.
And these rodents will not eat the
poison bait that killed the other rodents if the bait is
left in the
same places. Acute poisons are also more dangerous for
farmers to use.
<FIGURE 76>
51bp59a.gif (393x393)
Anticoagulants are added to food and the rat must eat the
food for about
5 days at a time.
These poisons have no taste and no smell.
The rodents
do not know they are being poisoned, and this is an
advantage. They
continue to eat the poisoned food.
It takes a lot of poison, a lot of
bait, and a lot of time to use anticoagulants well.
This may be a disadvantage
for some farmers.
But anticoagulants are much safer for farmers
to use. And safety
is an important factor to weigh when using poison.
Preparing Bait
Poison is mixed with foods rodents like (bait).
The bait and poison mixture must look good to
rodents so that they will eat the poisoned
bait instead of the stored grain.
<FIGURE 77>
51bp59b.gif (317x317)
A cereal bait often is used. Cereals for bait must be kept
free of
insects. The cereal should be in fine- or medium-size pieces.
Warfarin
is usually used at 0.005% to 0.05% (the amount of Warfarin
contained in
the bait mixture). Above 0.05% the rats can taste the poison
and will
not eat the bait.
<FIGURE 78>
51bp59c.gif (317x317)
Anticoagulant poisons are often sold in master mix
form. This master
mix includes an ingredient which helps the poison mix in
better with
the bait.
Here are directions for mixing baits:
Dry Anticoagulant Baits.
To make 10kgs of Warfarin or Coumatetralyl ready-to-use
bait:
* Mix 9.5kg of dry
ground meal (19 parts by weight) of oats,
wheat, or any
cereal grain with 0.5kg of master mix (1 part
by weight).
Oily Anticoagulant Baits.
These baits are used instead of dry baits in
wet places, add in places where the bait will stay for some
time. The
cereal does not have to be as fine as for dry bait.
Rats like the bait
when it has sugar, molasses, or some sweet food in it.
* Mix (by
weight): 17 parts cereal
1 part sugar
1 part Warfarin Master Mix
* Stir well, so all
dry ingredients are mixed.
* Add one part (by
weight) oil -- liquid paraffin or
white oil.
* Stir until the
bait is evenly mixed.
* This makes a
total mixture of 19 parts of bait (cereal,
sugar, and oil)
to 1 part of poison. If rodents still
prefer to eat the
stored grain, change from oily bait
to damp bait.
Damp Bait. Rodents
like damp baits, but these baits dry out quickly.
amp baits are usually used with acute poisons.
There are several ways
of making damp bait:
1.
[/I]Wet Cereal.
Soak cereal grains overnight (wheat, sorghum,
etc.) in
water. Drain the water off just before
use.
Add correct
amount of poison. The directions for
the
amount of
poison are given on the containers. IF
THERE
ARE NO
DIRECTIONS FOR USE, DO NOT USE THE POISON.
2.
[/I]Damp, Coarse Cereal.
Soak (by weight) 2 parts cereal
in 1 part
water for 1 hour. Stir several
times. Add
poison and
use.
3.
[/I]Bread Mash.
Soak old bread in water.
Drain off extra
water.
Pound wet bread to a paste.
Mix in poison and
use.
Liquid Bait. These
are useful in dry situations. Rats
living in stored
grain areas have to go looking for water.
Other sources of water should
be removed as much as possible.
Liquid baits then are placed as drinking
<FIGURE 79>
51bp60a.gif (393x393)
Liquid baits are simply poisons dissolved in water.
They may be acute or anticoagulant types of poison.
Sodium fluoroacetate, Warfarin, and Pival all are
used in making liquid baits.
Liquid baits, however, lose their power in two or
three days i n warm weather.
Placing Baits
<FIGURE 80>
51bp60b.gif (317x317)
There must be plenty of bait stations
Bait must be placed in runways, near
holes, burrows, and nests. Farmers
should remember when placing bait
that rodents stay close to home.
Rats
usually travel in an area of About
[45m.sup.2]and mice stay within a [9m.sup.2] area.
Placing Acute Poisons.
Here is one method:
* Prepare 10cm x
10cm square papers, banana leaves, or like
material.
* Place poisoned
food in the middle at one end.
* Roll up the paper
and twist the ends.
* One pound of bait
makes 80 or 90 doses.
* Throw the paper
packets into places where it is impossible
to place traps --
into holes and burrows, between walls,
etc.
NEVER PLACE THESE
PACKETS WHERE CHILDREN AND PETS CAN GET
THEM.
Another method of placing bait:
* Cover the floor
with small pieces or teaspoonsful of bait
containing an
acute poison.
* Collect and
destroy the bait after 24 hours. Do not recommend
this method to
farmers who do not have separate grain
storage
buildings: it is far too dangerous to leave poison
bait sitting
around on the floors and grounds belonging
to a small
farmer.
Placing Anticoagulant Poisons.
These poisons are probably the best ones
for you to recommend to farmers.
They must be used carefully. But they
are relatively easy to use.
It is important to keep enough bait out for a long enough
period of time.
Keep bait out at least two weeks. Each pile of bait should
be 200-250cm,
and each should be laid in the places where signs of rodents
have been found.
Place the bait
in empty shallow tins, on ends cut off from
tin cans, in
pipes and pieces of bamboo. The bait
can be
placed
directly on the ground, but it may get wet and moldy.
<FIGURE 81>
51bp61.gif (353x353)
<FIGURE 82>
51bp62a.gif (317x317)
* Construct bait
boxes and use them
and boards,
pipes, or cans in
certain places to
hide the bait
from other
animals to keep
baits from
getting wet.
* Put the bait in
places where signs
of rodents have
been found.
* Check the bait
stations every day to make sure there is
enough bait.
* Smooth the bait
so that next time he checks he will be able
to see signs of
feeding.
* Change moldy or
insect-infested baits for new ones.
* Move the bait
station to another place if the bait is
not being eaten.
<FIGURE 83>
51bp62b.gif (285x285)
Other materials on rodent control follow:
* Information
sheets on major rodent poisons. Use these as
guides to
preparing materials for use with rodenticides
available in your
area.
* Instruction sheet
for making rat baffles.
* Scripts for a
series of illustrated leaflets on rat control,
including an
example of how an artist can turn these
scripts into very
effective information through use
of illustrations.
WARFARIN
<FIGURE 84>
51bp63.gif (317x317)
TYPE:
Anticoagulant rat poison.
FORMULATIONS: *
Ready-to-use bait.
*
Powder concentrate. The Total of
Warfarin
in the concentrate is only 0.5% of the
whole. Mix 1 part of the powder
concentrate
to 19 parts of bait. This gives
a bait
which contains 0.025% Warfarin.
*
Powders to dissolve in water. This
makes
a
liquid for use as poisoned drinking
water or making wet bait.
*
Dusts. These contain 1% Warfarin.
This
can be sprinkled on surfaces where rats
run.
*
Wax rat blocks. These are blocks of
wheat
held together by wax. The poison
is mixed
in the wheat.
The block is placed where rats
will nibble at it.
These formulations are easy to use. But they should be used
with great
care.
WARNING: ALL
POISONS ARE DANGEROUS!!
*
Follow directions for use given on the poison
container.
* Do
not eat, drink, or smoke when using poison.
Wash your hands very well after using poison.
* Put
poison containers away out of the reach of
children.
NOTE: If someone
swallows Warfarin, make him vomit. To
make someone
vomit--stick
your fingers down his throat or make him drink
warm water
with salt in it. Vomiting empties the
stomach. Get
the poisoned
person to a doctor as soon as you can.
COUMATETRALYL
OTHER NAMES:
Racumin
TYPE:
Anticoagulant rat poison.
FORMULATION: *
Ready-to-use bait (0.05%).
*
Mix containing 0.75. Dilute 1 part mix
to
19 parts of bait. Final concentrate
0.37%.
*
Dust (0.75%). Place on surfaces where
rats
run.
USES: Uses
as you would use Warfarin.
WARNING: ALL
POISONS ARE DANGEROUS.
* If you are not sure which
poison to use,
ask someone who knows how to use poisons
correctly.
*
Read all direction carefully.
* Do
not eat, drink, or smoke when handling
poison.
<FIGURE 85>
51bp64a.gif (353x353)
<FIGURE 86>
51bp64b.gif (285x285)
CHLOROPHACINONE
OTHER NAMES:
TYPE:
Anticoagulant poison.
FORMULATION: *
Ready-to-use bait (0.005%).
*
Mix in oil (0.25%). Dilute 1 part to 49
parts
to
19 of bait. Concentrate should be
(0.005%).
*
Dusts. These contain 2%
Chlorophacinone.
These can be sprinkled into holes and runways
used by rats. Dusts should be
sprinkled for
20 days.
WARNING: ALL
POISONS ARE DANGEROUS.
*
If you are not sure which poison to use,
ask someone who knows how to use poisons
correctly.
*
Read all directions carefully.
*
Do not eat, drink, or smoke while using
poisons.
*
Never use these formulations near food.
KEEP AWAY FROM
CHILDREN
WASH YOUR HANDS AFTER
USING POISON
SODIUM MONOFLUOROACETATE
OTHER NAMES:
Compound 1080
TYPE:
Acute Rat Poison
FORMULATIONS:
Must be used as a liquid. When
using the liquid,,
you must obey all the safety rules for handling
poison.
WARNING:
VERY DANGEROUS TO MAN. THERE IS
NO ANTIDOTE TO
THIS POISON.
* Men and animals can be killed or made
sick by
eating rats that have eaten this poison.
The
powder form causes immediate death in humans
who breathe it. NEVER EVEN OPEN
A CONTAINER
OF THE POWDER.
*
Do not get the poison on your clothes or your
body. If you do, wash with a lot
of running
water.
* Keep it away from other people
and animals.
* Burn or bury all the tools and
containers used
to mix and hold the poison. If
buried, keep away
from underground water sources.
*
USE RUBBER GLOVES AND WASH YOUR HANDS CAREFULLY
AFTER MIXING THE POISON.
RAT BAFFLES
<FIGURE 87>
51bp67.gif (353x353)
Materials and Equipment
*
1 flat tin sheet (30 gauge, 0.9 x 2m)
1 pair tin
shears or sharp chisel
1 hammer
Chalk, charcoal,
or large nail for drawing baffles on tin sheet
25, 4-6cm nails
(You will need 5 nails for each baffle)
Baffles should be about 50cm in diameter at the narrow
end. The size
will vary with the size of the leg which the baffle must
fit.
* Mark out
baffles on tin sheet with chalk or charcoal before
cutting them
out.
* Cut out along
the outside edges. Do not cut the
middle yet.
* Start with the
thinnest leg first. Cut out the hole in
the
middle of the
baffle little by little. The baffle
must fit
tightly to
keep even the smallest rodent from climbing
between the
baffle and the leg. If the hole in the
baffle
gets too big
for this leg, use it on a fatter leg.
* Nail the
baffle tightly to a wooden leg. Use
cement mortar
to fasten the
baffle to a concrete leg.
* Cut out and
fit all the baffles in the same way.
* Make wooden
legs round, if they are not round already.
Cut
the middle
hole of the baffle to fit a concrete leg which
is not round.
NOTE: You can use
whatever thin metal is available. Old
tin cans can
be cut and
flattened.
Below is a pattern for a rat guard to be cut from a piece of
tin or a
flattened tin can.
This piece is cut out and bent to form a cone with
a hole in the center.
It is fastened around the leg of the crib or
storage building and attached to the leg with nails or wire.
<FIGURE 88>
51bp68.gif (317x317)
RAT CONTROL SERIES
SUGGESTED USES: This
series of scripts is a short version of the material
in the rodent section.
The scripts could be used as part of a campaign
to alert farmers to the damage rodents do, and to the steps
which can be
taken to control rodents.
The scripts have been prepared in some detail; you can
choose the points
which best fit the situation in your area.
The points can be translated
and pictured quite easily.
The illustrated material which follows these
scripts shows how VITA artist Kenneth Lloyd has used
pictures to explain
many facts about rodents.
SCRIPT # 1
RODENTS ARE EVERYWHERE
* Rats live in your
houses.
* Rats live in your
fields.
* Rats eat holes in
your buildings.
* Rats eat food in
your houses.
* Rats eat grain in
your storage places.
* Rats make your
food and grain dirty. They put
droppings from their
bodies on the
grain while they are eating it.
* Rats bring
sickness. They can bring diseases which
make people die.
They can even kill
sleeping babies.
* Rats like to live
in storage places.
* Rats eat a lot of
your grain everyday. There is less
grain for you
to sell and eat.
* You must keep rats
out of your fields. You must keep rats
out of your
house.
You must keep rats out of your stored grain.
* Your extension
worker can tell you how to keep rats away from your farm.
* Remember:
Rats bring sickness to you and your family.
Rats
steal food and grain.
Rats
make your grain dirty.
SCRIPT # 2
KNOW ABOUT RATS
* You must know what
rats can do before you can fight them.
* Rats move
fast. They are fast and quiet.
* Rats have sharp
teeth. They can make holes in wooden
walls and trees.
* Rats can climb and
jump.
* Rats can crawl on
ropes and wires.
* Rat can swim.
They are not afraid of water.
* Rats are
smart. They can stay away from traps.
* Rats have large
families. One pair of rats can make a family
of more
than 1,000 rats in
a year.
* Rats build nests
in quiet, dark places. They make nests
using straw,
feathers, paper,
and other pieces of trash.
* Rats hide around
homes and storage places. Rats like to
live near
food.
* Some rats live
under the ground. They like to live
near grain growing
in the field.
* Rats like to eat
at night. Rats move around at night.
* Rats use the same
road every time they make a trip.
* Rats find many
places to hide on a farm. You must look
carefully to
find them.
* Look for nests.
* Look for
trails. Rats pack down the plants in
places because they always
use the same road.
* Look for
droppings. New droppings are shiny and
black. Old droppings
are gray.
* Look for chewed
holes in wooden walls.
* Look for dirty,
greasy marks at the bottom of walls and doors.
* Listen at
night. Sometimes you can hear rats
moving in the roof,
cooking place, or
grain storage place.
* Now you know where
the rats are. Now you can get the rats
away.
* Your extension
worker can give you information on how to get rats
away from your
farm.
SCRIPT # 3
FIGHTING RATS WITHOUT POISON
* Rats must have
food and water to live.
* Rats like dirty
places.
* Keep your home and
grain storage places CLEAN.
* Make sure rats do
not get food.
* Put old food into
a covered container if you want to use it later.
Do not leave food
on tables or shelves.
* Feed old food to
the pigs and chickens right away.
* Bury garbage.
Or burn garbage.
Or compost garbage.
* Clean around the
outside of buildings. Do not leave
piles of garbage,
rags, paper,
leaves, and cans. Rats like to hide in
these things.
* Keep grass cut short.
* Cut tree branches
that grow near your home and grain storage area.
Remember rats can
jump. They can jump from the tree to
the building.
* Make sure rats
cannot get under the door of your home or storage area.
* Put strips of
metal along the bottom of doors. Rats
cannot bite through
metal.
* Close all holes in
wooden buildings with metal sheets or flattened tin
cans.
* Fill holes in
plaster, brick, or mud walls.
* Use rock or
concrete floors. Rats can come up
through the ground into
the storage area.
* Store grain in
covered containers. Place containers
off the ground.
* Put metal bands
around the bottom or legs of grain containers.
This
keeps rats from
climbing up to the top.
* Keep a cat or
dog. Train the animal to chase and kill
rats.
* You may have to
use rat poison also. Contact your
extension worker.
Do not use poison
before you talk to the extension worker.
POISON
IS DANGEROUS.
SCRIPT # 4
FIGHTING
RATS WITH POISON
* Clean your grain
storage areas.
* Close and
rat-proof all holes in buildings.
* Protect the
storage containers and building with metal.
This
stops new rats
from coming in.
* Use poison and
traps to kill any rats that are left.
* Talk to your
extension worker before you use poison.
The extension
agent will know
which poison to use. He will know how
to use the
poison.
He will know where you can get the poison.
* Remember that some
rat poisons can kill other animals and people.
* One poison kills
rats quickly. You can kill many rats at
one time.
* Soon rats will not
eat this poison. They know this poison
kills.
* Then you can use
another kind of poison. Rats must eat
this poison for
3 days or so
before they die. Rats do not know they
are dying. So
they will keep
eating the poison.
* Some poison is
already mixed with food rats like to eat.
* Food that rats
like to eat is called bait. Bait can be
rice, corn meal,
bread.
* You can mix this
bait with poison yourself. Ask your
extension worker
how much poison to
mix with the bait.
* Add some corn oil,
coconut oil, sugar or molasses to the bait and
poison.
Rats like the taste very much.
* Try not to touch
the poison. Wash your hands when you
finish mixing.
* Now make boxes and
containers to put the bait in. These
boxes and containers
let the rats
in. Other animals and children can not
get into
these boxes and
containers.
* There are
different kinds of bait boxes and containers.
* You can put bait
in pipes made of bamboo or metal.
* Put bait in tin
cans.
* Put bait in small
dishes made out of bamboo or tin cans.
Put dishes
inside the bait
boxes or bait containers.
* Put bait
containers close to walls and doorways in your storage area.
* Put poison
containers near places where rats run.
* Make bait
containers to put in your fields.
* Put these
containers near trails and rat holes.
* Poison field rats
before the grain is ready. Rats will
not eat poison
if they can eat
grain.
* Check all bait
containers very often. The poison bait
must not get
too old.
Rats will not eat old bait.
* Remember:
Check with your extension agent for help
with poison.
Read the
words on the poison box or jar.
Wash
your hands after you mix the bait with poison.
Keep
all poison away from food, animals, and people.
SCRIPT # 5
FIGHTING RATS WITH TRAPS
* Your extension
worker can tell you which traps to use.
He can tell
you how to use
them.
* It is good to use
traps in places where children might go.
Poison
is too dangerous.
* Show your family
where you are putting the traps.
* Show your family
how the traps work. Traps can hurt
people.
* You must put food
that rats like in the trap. Try
different kinds
until you find a
good bait. Try pieces of meat, dried
fish, bread.
* Put traps near
food places. Put traps on top of stored
grain. Do not
use rat poison in
these places.
* Tie the traps
down. Sometimes rats run away with
traps. The traps
just catch the
rats' noses.
* Put traps near rat
trails, rat footprints, rat holes.
* Move the traps
around every few days.
* Check the traps
every day. Make sure the bait is still
there.
* Do not touch dead
rats. Rats carry disease and sickness.
* Use a stick or
shovel to get the rat out of the trap.
* Burn dead rats.
* Wash traps before
using them again. Wash your hands.
* Remember:
Ask your extension worker about traps and
how to use them.
Traps
can hurt people and animals. Use them
carefully.
Do not
let children play with traps.
Use
traps near food and grain. Never use
poison in these places.
<FIGURE 89>
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<FIGURE 90>
<FIGURE 91>
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<FIGURE 100>
Appendix A
The following material is taken from Guidelines for the Use
of
Insectidides, published by the
Agricultural Research Services
and Forest Service of the
United
States Department of Agriculture
The section of the Guidelines included here contains
information on
applying insectidides with sprayers and power dusters,
safety precautions,
and protection of wildlife from insecticides.
The section
of this book pertaining to insecticide dosages,
formulations, and
applications for use with stored grain is included in its
entirety. This
information is included because it is often hard for
development workers
to get such complete information.
The entire publication includes insect control for crops,
livestock,
households, forests, and forest products.
OTHER MEANS OF INSECT CONTROL
In addition to the
use of insecticides, there are a number of other ways to
control or to help control injurious insects.
Natural controls, such as
parasites, predators, diseases, and adverse weather
conditions, are continually
at work. Often they
reduce populations of injurious insects and keep them at
levels that are not economically damaging.
Also, good sanitation and
housekeeping are essential for the effective control of
house flies, stable flies,
cockroaches, fleas and stored-product insects, even when
these practices are
supplemented by chemical controls.
Cultural practices and mechanical devices
aid materially in the control of the pink bollworm, boll weevil,
tobacco
hornworm, white pine weevil, and certain bark beetles.
Crop varieties
resistant to insects have been developed and are available
to avoid or reduce
damage by such insects as the hessian fly, wheat stem
sawfly, spotted alfalfa
aphid, and the European corn borer.
When harvested
products are subjected to heat or extreme cold in storage,
insect infestations are often destroyed or inhibited.
Insect-free commodities
can be protected by insect-resistant packaging and
sanitation in storage and in
marketing channels.
More satisfactory
control of insect pests may frequently be obtained by
carefully integrating the use of insecticides or fumigants
with biological
control agents and other nonchemical measures.
This approach to insect
control is most effective when the total population of the
insect is attacked
on a continuous basis (compared with treatment of seasonal
infestations in
individual fields).
Often when such integrated control is practiced, insecticides
are needed only to supplement the other control
measures. However,
for this method, all means of control of a pest insect must
be considered to
coordinate them to the greatest advantage and with the least
harmful effect
on other living organisms in the environment.
Consult your State agricultural
experiment station for the latest information.
Do not use insecticides or
fumigants unless they are needed.
APPLICATION OF INSECTICIDES
The key to
effective use of an insecticide without injury to the treated
plant, animal, or agricultural product is to follow
directions on the label. Do
not use any insecticide preparation for any purpose for
which it is not
specified. Most oil
sprays prepared for application to walls of buildings will
injure living plants or animals.
Insecticide concentrates prepared for application
to plants may injure or kill treated animals or result in
illegal residues in
animal tissues or byproducts.
Only general
information can be given here on the effective application of
insecticides since much depends on the habits of the insect
pest, the kind of
damage that it causes, the nature and condition of the
infested plants,
animals, or commodities to be treated, weather conditions,
and application
equipment, as well as the type and formulation of the
insecticide to be
applied. For
information to meet special needs, consult your State agricultural
experiment station.
Weather Conditions
Wind, rain, and
sun play an important part in the control you get from
outdoor use of insecticides.
Keep an eye on the weather.
Local weather
reports may be helpful in planning insecticide
applications. Before you start
to treat, watch the tops of trees or use other means to
determine the
direction and the amount of wind.
Some air movement is helpful.
Winds,
however, can cause an insecticide dust or spray to be
unevenly distributed on
the plants and to drift away from target areas.
If rain is
predicted, postpone treatment, if possible.
Rain falling soon after
you treat may reduce the effectiveness of an insecticide
deposit. Cold weather
may have the same effect.
Some insecticides must be applied at temperatures
above 50 [degrees] F. to be effective.
Extremes in
weather during or following the spraying of fruit trees may
lead to fruit or foliage injury.
Russeting of fruit may be increased by pesticide
sprays if they are applied at night or during cool, rainy,
or humid weather.
Emulsifiable materials are more likely to cause injury than
are wettable
powders.
High wind and low
temperature make control of insects by fumigation
difficult. High
winds may reduce gas concentration even in well-sealed
warehouses. Insects
are difficult to kill by fumigation at temperatures below
60 [degrees] F.
PRECAUTIONS
The following
safeguards are to protect handlers of insecticides and treated
objects, consumers of treated crops and animals, honey bees,
fish, wildlife,
domestic animals, fish pools, bird baths, creeks, feeding
dishes of animals, and
our basic natural resources--water, soil, and air.
Pesticides used
improperly can be injurious to man, animals, and plants.
Follow the directions and heed all precautions on the
labels.
Store pesticides
in original containers under lock and key-out of the reach
of children and animals-and away from food and feed.
Apply pesticides
so that they do not endanger humans, livestock, crops,
beneficial insects, fish, and wildlife.
Do not apply pesticides when there is
danger of drift, when honey bees or other pollinating
insects are visiting
plants, or in ways that may contaminate water or leave
illegal residues.
Avoid prolonged
inhalation of pesticide sprays or dusts; wear protective
clothing and equipment if specified on the container.
If your hands become
contaminated with a pesticide, do not eat or drink
until you have washed.
In case a pesticide is swallowed or gets in the eyes,
follow the first aid treatment given on the label, and get
prompt medical
attention. If a
pesticide is spilled on your skin or clothing, remove clothing
immediately and wash skin thoroughly.
When spraying near
dwellings, be sure you have left no puddles of spray on
hard soil surfaces.
Also check children's playthings such as mud pie dishes or
other containers that may retain the spray solution and
endanger small
children who may enter the area later.
Do not clean spray
equipment or dump excess spray material near ponds,
streams, or wells.
Because it is difficult to remove all traces of herbicides from
equipment, do not use the same equipment for insecticides or
fungicides that
you use for herbicides.
Dispose of empty
pesticide containers promptly. Have
them buried at a
sanitary land-fill dump, or crush and bury them in a level,
isolated place.
Protection of Persons Using Insecticides
In handling any
insecticide, avoid repeated or prolonged contact with skin
and prolonged inhalation of dusts, mists, and vapors.
Wear clean, dry
clothing, and wash hands and face before eating or
smoking. Launder clothing
daily.
Avoid spilling the
insecticide on the skin and keep it out of the eyes, nose,
and mouth. If you
spill any on your skin or clothing, remove contaminated
clothing immediately and wash the skin thoroughly with soap
and water.
Launder clothing before wearing it again.
If the insecticide gets in the eyes,
flush with plenty of water for 5 minutes and get medical
attention.
The following
insecticides can be used without special protective clothing
or devices. In all
cases, follow the label precautions.
Abate
ovex
Bacillus thuringiensis
paradichlorobenzene
calcium arsenate
paris green
carbaryl
Perthane
chlorobenzilate
piperonyl butoxide
cryolite
pyrethrins
dicofol
ronnel
diphenylamine
rotenone
Kepone
ryania
lead arsenate
sabadilla
lime sulfur
Strobane
malathion
sulfur
metaldehyde
TDE
methoxychlor
tetradifon
mirex
trichlorfon
naphthalene
zineb
oxythioquinox
The following
insecticides can be absorbed directly through the skin in
harmful quantities.
When working with these insecticides in any form, take
extra care not to let them come in contact with the
skin. Wear protective
clothing and respiratory devices as directed on the label.
benzene hexachloride
ethion
binapacryl
fenthion
chlordane
heptachlor
chlorpyrifos
Imidan
coumaphos
lindane
crotoxyphos
naled
crufomate
Nemacide
diazinon
phosalone
dichlorvos
propargite
dimethoate
propoxor
dioxathion
toxaphene
endosulfan
The following
insecticides are highly toxic and may be fatal if swallowed,
inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.
These materials should be applied only
by a person who is thoroughly familiar with their hazards
and who will
assume full responsibility for proper use and comply with
all the precautions
on the labels.
aldicarb
endrin
aldrin
EPN
Bux
famphur
azinphosmethyl
methomyl
carbofuran
methyl parathion
carbophenothion
Methyl Trithion
compound 4072
mevinphos
Dasanit
mexacarbate
demeton
monocrotophos
dichloropropane-dichloropropene
nicotine sulfate
mixture
parathion
dicrotophos
phorate
dieldrin
phosphamidon
disulfoton
Telone
DN-111
tepp
Dyfonate
The following
insecticides are used in closed spaces as fumigants.
Because
of their volatility and toxicity, they are considered to be
hazardous when
inhaled. In closed
spaces these fumigants should be used only by a licensed
pest control operator or by a qualified person who is
thoroughly familiar with
their hazards, who will assume full responsibility for their
proper use, and
who knows he must comply with all precautions on the
labels. The value
given in parentheses after each material is the maximum
average atmospheric
concentration (threshold limit) of the insecticide, by
volume, to which
workers may be exposed for an 8-hour day without injury to
health. These
threshold limit values were adopted at the 30th Annual
Meeting of the
American Conference of Governmental industrial Hygienists,
May 1968.
acrylonitrile (20 p.p.m.)
ethyl formate (100 p.p.m.)
aluminum phosphide
ethylene dibromide [(25 p.p.m.).sup.3]
(as phosphine 0.3
p.p.m.) ethylene
dicfdoride (200 p.p.m)
calcium cyanide [(5 mg. dust per
ethylene oxide (50 p.p.m.)
cubic
meter).sup.2]
hydrogen cyanide 10 p.p.m.)
carbon disulfide (20 p.p.m.)
methyl bromide [(20 p.p.m.).sup.3]
carbon tetrachloride (10 p.p.m.)
methyl formate (100 p.p.m.)
chloroform [(50 p.p.m.).sup.3]
propylene oxide (100 p.p.m.)
chloropicrin (0.1 p.p.m.)
sulfuryl fluoride (5 p.p.m.)
Reduce the danger
of skin exposure to insecticides by wearing protective
clothing and equipment as specified on the label.
If specified, wear a
respirator or mask designed for protection against the
particular insecticide
being used.
Directions for use or illustrative material must contain the names
of the pesticide being used.
Fullface masks should always be worn by persons
applying fumigants in buildings or warehouses.
They should also be worn by
persons applying the type of insecticide aerosols used in
commercial
greenhouses and warehouses.
In many cases masks or respirators are needed
by persons loading insecticides into aircraft or applying
them by aircraft.
The gas methyl
chloride used as a propellent in greenhouse aerosols and
the liquid fumigants carbon disulfide, ethyl formate,
ethylene oxide, methyl
formate, and propylene oxide are flammable and
explosive. Never use them
near heat or fire in any form.
Never open containers of these chemicals where
there is little air in circulation without wearing an
adequate fullface mask. Do
not transfer any liquid fumigant from one container to
another in a closed
room; do not breathe the fumes.
(2) Not from list
of threshold limit values.
(3) Ceiling limit
not to be exceeded.
Protection of Persons Handling Treated Plants or Objects
If you must
transplant or otherwise handle plants within 5 days after
treatment with azinphosmethyl, demeton, disulfoton, endrin,
or parathion or
within 1 day after treatment with methyl parathion or
mevinphos, protect
your skin by wearing clean, dry cotton gloves.
If gloves become wet, thoroughly
wash the hands and put on clean joves.
If you must work in close
contact with tieated crops, as in thinning or harvesting,
you should also wear
dry, clean, tightly woven clothing.
If concentrated
pesticide is spilled on the ground, remove or bury the
contaminated soil.
This is especially important in areas where small children
play.
Treatment for Poisoning
If a person is
poisoned by an insecticide, call a physician and give first aid
immediately. If
breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration.
If two
persons are present, one should give first aid while the
other obtains the
insecticide container and calls the physician.
Tell him the name of the
insecticide and obtain instructions.
In general it is
advisable to induce vomiting if the victim has swallowed a
high toxic insecticide and is not in an unconscious state
and a physician will
not be available within 30 minutes.
A tablespoonful of salt or baking soda in
a glass of warm water will help induce vomiting.
Have the victim lie down and
keep him quiet until you get advice from a physician.
Keep the victim warm.
If a concentrate
or oil solution has been spilled on the skin or clothing,
remove contaminated clothing and wash skin with soap and
water. If a person
feels sick while using an insecticide or shortly afterward,
call a physician
immediately. In all cases
make available the insecticide container and any
attached labeling.
Information provided by them is extremely valuable to the
physician. Inform
him of recent contacts with insecticides.
The one most
obvious to you may not be the one to blame.
If a person is overcome by the vapor of a
fumigant, prompt, on-the-spot
action is essential.
Carry the victim outdoors or to a room free of gas and lay
him down. Remove
contaminated clothing and keep him warm.
Administer
first aid treatment immediately.
If breathing has stopped, give artificial
respiration. Call a
physicial immediately. Fumigators
should have kits
properly equipped with antidotes required for first aid
treatment of a victim
of the specific fumigant being used and instructions on treatments
that are to
be administered only by a physician.
Protection of Fish and Wildlife
No chemical
control of insects should be undertaken unless the expected
benefits outweigh possible hazards to other animals.
To minimize damage to
fish and wildlife, do not use persistent chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides
when alternative insecticides of lesser hazard are
available. Select insecticides
and methods of application that are least hazardous and
apply them at
minimum effective dosages.
Avoid drift of
insecticides as much as possible and limit applications of
insecticides to the target area.
To prevent damage to fish, birds, and other
animals, be careful not to contaminate streams, lakes,
marshes, and grazing or
browsing areas by improper application or excessive drift of
insecticides.
Where drift is difficult to control, use sprays or granules
instead of dusts, and
ground applications instead of air applications.
Aircraft spraying
in forest areas should be kept under aerial and ground
surveillance at all times to insure precise
application. Operations should be
suspended any time the deposit pattern is not right.
Monitor spray projects
before, during, and after spraying to evaluate the effects
of the insecticide on
fish, wildlife, livestock, beneficial insects, water, soil,
and plants. Pilots should
fly spray planes at least 500 feet high when going back and
forth between the
airstrip and spray block.
They should carefully choose a route parallel to but
not over streams and avoid flights over lakes, ponds, farm
buildings, or
pastures. They
should check frequently to be sure that calibration is correct
and all components are in good operating condition.
Field borders,
hedgerows, ditchbanks, stream margins, and wood edges are
prime wildlife habitat.
Insofar as feasible, avoid treating them.
"Dressing the
field margins" can be very hard on desirable animal
life. Be careful to avoid
leaving treated seed or insecticide granules on the surface;
this is especially
necessary at turnrows.
Overlapping swaths of insecticides are dangerous in
doubling or tripling the danger to wildlife.
This danger is greatest near aerial
turning points, where several swaths may overlap, if care is
not taken to
prevent it.
Do not clean spray
equipment or dump excess spray materials in or near
streams or other water areas where drainage could
contaminate water.
In forest spraying
by aircraft, lay out spray blocks and flight lines to
minimize drift into water, marshes, grazing, and other
sensitive areas. Spray as
near treetop levels as safety permits to minimize
drift. Leave a nonspray strip
along critical streams, lakes, ponds, and any other areas
that may be adversely
affected. Spray only
when the wind velocity is less than 6 miles per hour and
the temperature is less than 68 [degrees] F.
Early morning or late evening hours are
usually best for air operations.
In aerial spraying of nonforest areas, take
similar precautions.
Protection of Insect Parasites and Predators
A program of crop
or forest pest control should be designed to take
maximum advantage of any biological control factors that may
be present.
Whenever possible, the insecticide should be selective
against the pest species
concerned and of minimum danger to beneficial insects.
If parasites or
predators are abundant, it may be advantageous to defer or
omit insecticide
treatments.
Protection of Honey Bees and Other Insect Pollinators
More than half the
crops listed in this handbook are dependent on insect
pollination. An insecticide
applied to these crops is of doubtful value if it
destroys the pollinators while destroying the harmful
insects. Most of this
pollination is performed by honey bees.
Protect them.
Much of the damage to
bees by insecticides can be prevented if you do not treat
crops in bloom while
bees are visiting the field.
Treatment at night is safest.
Other steps that will
reduce bee losses are:
* Use pesticides
only when needed.
* Use the lowest
effective dosage and make a minimum number of
applications.
* Use a material
that is least hazardous to bees but will control the insect
pest, if
applications must be made while bees are actively visiting the
area.
* Use granules or
dilute sprays instead of dusts. They
are usually less
hazardous.
Application with ground equipment is less hazardous to bees
than application
with aerial equipment.
* Avoid drift of
insecticides into bee yards and adjacent crop or wild
plants in bloom.
* Do not apply
insecticides if apiaries are near enough to be unavoidably
affected; notify
the beekeeper so he can move the hives in time.
The following
lists indicate which insecticides are hazardous to honey
bees, as determined by laboratory and field tests.
These materials are
hazardous to bees when applied as foliar treatments to
agricultural and
ornamental plants (including home garden applications),
mosquito abatement
treatments (except granular products) and foliage treatment
to forests or
shade trees. The
materials are not hazardous when used as soil applications or
dormant applications.
For further information consult the pesticide container
label. For
information applicable to local conditions, consult your State
agricultural experiment station.
Hazardous.
-The following materials are highly toxic to
bees exposed to
direct treatment or residues.
Do not apply these materials while plants are in
bloom.
aldicarb
Bux
aldrin
calcium arsenate
azinphosmethyl
carbaryl
benzene hexachloride
carbofuran
chloropyrifos
lead arsenate
crotoxyphos
lindane
Dasanit
malathion (as ULV or
dust)
diazinon
methyl parathion
dichlorovos
Methyl Trithion
dicrotophos
mevinphos
dieldrin
mexacarbate
dimethoate
monocrotophos
dyfonate
naled
EPN
parathion
famphur
phosphamidon
fenthion
propoxur
heptachlor
tepp
imidan
(Trichlorfon as a dust)
The following
materials are toxic to bees and should not be applied when
bees are actively visiting the area:
carbophenothion
mirex
chlordane
naled as E.C.
coumaphos
perthane
crotoxyphos
phorate
demeton
phosalone
disulfoton
propoxur
endosulfan
ronnel
endrin
TDE
malathion as E.C.
Avoiding Harmful Residues in or on Food and Feed
Residues in excess
of the established legal tolerances can be avoided by
applying only those insecticides specified for use on the
crop or livestock and
by following indicated schedules.
Do not exceed recommended dosages.
Observe carefully the safety restrictions, especially the
required interval
between the last application and harvest or feeding, and
between the last
application and slaughter of animals.
Avoid drift of
insecticide sprays or dust to nearby crops or livestock,
especially from applications by aircraft and other power
equipment. Do not
allow poultry, dairy animals, or meat animals to feed on
plants or drink water
contaminated by drift of insecticides.
Certain root crops,
such as sugarbeets, peanuts, carrots, and parsnips, are
susceptible to contamination from residues of certain
organochlorine insecticides
in the soil. Do not
apply aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, or toxaphene to soils where the crop rotation
includes one of
these crops unless a finite tolerance has been established
for the insecticide.
Byproducts from a
number of crops treated with insecticides may be
safely fed to livestock or poultry if the crops are
harvested or fed after the
specified waiting period.
However, when byproducts from some crops treated
with certain insecticides are fed to livestock, insecticide
residues in excess of
established tolerances may appear in meat, milk, or
eggs. Before using an
insecticide, read carefully the safety restrictions in the
last column of the
tables beginning on page 1.1 of this handbook to determine
if such
byproducts as sweet corn husks, citrus pulp, bagasse,
alfalfa threshings, apple
pomace, bean and pea vines, sugarbeet tops, cull potatoes,
trimmings from
leafy vegetables, and gin waste from cotton are safe for
feeding to dairy
animals, poultry, or animals being finished for slaughter.
In storage areas
apply only those insecticides registered for the purpose.
A
commodity that comes in contact with floors or walls treated
with an
insecticide not registered for use in storage areas may
become contaminated
and be liable to confiscation.
Repeated applications of some fumigants will
cause residues to build up in the commodities.
Be sure to follow the
instructions on the registered label.
Such a label will include an Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Registration Number.
Safe Disposal of Empty Insecticide Containers and Surplus
Insecticides
The careful
disposal of empty insecticide containers and surplus insecticides
is an important part of safe insecticide use.
When possible, growers
should carry their empty insecticide containers to a
sanitary land-fill and have
them buried. Do not
abandon them on the land-fill. Inform
the operator of
the nature of the residues in the containers.
Warn him of any danger of
poisonous vapors if burned.
Crush or puncture containers to prevent reuse.
If a suitable
land-fill is not available, break or crush glass and metal
containers (except pressurized cans) and bury them in an
isolated place where
they will not contaminate water supplies.
Pour excess insecticides into a hole
at least 18 inches deep, dug in level ground in an isolated
place where they
will not contaminate water supplies.
Cover with dirt.
If you have trash
collection service, wrap small empty containers in several
layers of newspapers
before placing them in trash cans.
Sell large drums
that contained insecticides to a firm dealing in used drums
or barrels. The firm
should have equipment to neutralize the toxicity of the
adhering insecticides.
Do not attempt to use the drums where they could
become a source of contamination to feed or water.
Old pesticide drums used
as floats corrode and thus cause serious fish kills.
Do not dump
containers or leftover chemicals in gullies, ditches, streams,
woods, or trash heaps.
For more specific
information on the safe use of insecticides, consult your
State agricultural experiment station or one of the following
U.S. Department
of Agriculture publications:
Program Aid 622,
"Farmers' Checklist for Pesticide Safety"
Program Aid 589,
"Safe Use of Pesticides in the Home-in the Garden"
ARS 33-76-2,
"Respiratory Devices for Protection Against Certain
Insecticides"
Program Aid 727,
"Use Chemicals Safely in the Production of Beef Cattle,
Swine, and
Sheep."
TOXICITY OF INSECTICIDES
All insecticides
must be considered potentially toxic to man and animals.
However, the degree of toxicity is one of several factors in
the use of
insecticides that determine the hazard to man.
The primary hazard lies in
failure to follow the precautions and directions for use
indicated on the
insecticide label and summarized in this handbook.
These precautions and
directions depend not only on the degree of toxicity and the
nature of
toxicity of the insecticide but also on its stability.
Some highly toxic
insecticides that must be handled with great caution
dissipate so rapidly upon
exposure on plants or animals or in the soil that they
create no serious residue
problems. On the
contrary, some insecticides of low toxicity persist in the
soil, on plants, and in meat and fat of animals that feed on
these plants and
may thus create critical residue problems.
In general,
arsenical insecticides are very stable and may accumulate in the
soil in quantities sufficient to injure plants.
Small quantities are taken up by
plants, which in time are eaten by animals.
Some
organochlorine insecticides may also persist in the soil for years.
Certain crops grown in such soils may pick up enough
insecticide through
contamination or translocation to exceed tolerances, even
though the
insecticide was not applied to them but to previous crops in
the rotation. For
example, enough aldrin or chlordane may persist in soil from
year to year to
contaminate such sensitive root crops as sugarbeets or
carrots.
Organophosphorus
insecticides generally are more toxic to animals than
organochlorines.
However, the organophosphorus insecticides usually do not
leave highly persistent residues on treated plants or
animals and are less likely
to accumulate in animal tissues.
Diazinon and parathion applied to the soil
become ineffective within 2 or 3 months and are not problems
in rotation of
crops. The
persistence of insecticides is reflected in the waiting periods
required between application and harvest.
The toxicity of insecticides is a
major factor in determining the tolerances set.
The tolerance is set at a safe
level as determined by data obtained in animal feeding
studies. An adequate
safety factor is used in translating animal data to
man. However, a tolerance is
not established at a level higher than required for the
purpose in accordance
with good agricultural practice even if the toxicity of the
pesticide is so low
that a higher tolerance would be safe.
Many factors must be considered in
selecting an insecticide for a specific purpose.
Whenever possible, preference
should always be given to insecticides that have low
toxicity, persist only a
short time, and do not accumulate in animal tissues.
The following two
tables provide information on the acute toxicity of
various insecticides.
In the first table, acute oral and dermal [LD.sub.50] (lethal
dosage) values are given for most of the compounds included
in this
handbook. An
[LD.sub.50] value is a statistical estimate of the dosage necessary to
kill 50 percent of a population of white rats or other test
animals within a
specified period under standardized conditions in the
laboratory. The toxicity
of a chemical to such animals may vary, however, with
species, age, sex, and
nutritional state, and with the formulation of the
insecticide and the manner
of administration.
Also the [LD.sub.50] values are usually expressed in terms of a
single dosage, which provides little or no information on
possible cumulative
effects of repeated dosages of the compound.
In the second
table are given the acute [LC.sub.50] values (lethal concentration)
of some of the common insecticides for two fresh water
fishes-rainbow trout
and bluegills.
[LD.sub.50] or
[LC.sub.50] values are useful in comparing different chemical
compounds. However,
they have certain limitations, and caution must be
used in interpreting them in relation to actual use
hazards. Since the values
are obtained for other animals or fish, they can be applied
to man only with
reservations. Under
comparable conditions and dosages, highly toxic substances
are more hazardous than less toxic substances.
However, such factors
as dosage, frequency of application, and characteristics
with respect to
accumulation and persistence in animal tissues must be
considered. For
example, a highly toxic material applied at a low dosage may
be less
hazardous than a much less toxic one applied at a high
dosage.
Acute Oral
and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
Test Animals
(Data assembled by
the Atlanta Toxicology Branch, Division of Pesticides,
Bureau of Science, Food and Drug Administration, Consumer
Protection and
Environmental Health Service, Public Health Service, U.S.
Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare.
Most of the values are based on standardized
tests by the Atlanta Toxicology Laboratory of the Division
of Pesticides; a
few are based on publications from other laboratories.
All values are for white
rats unless otherwise indicated.)
Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Insecticide
Males Females
Males
Females
Organochlorine Insecticides
aldrin
39
60
98 98
benzene hexachloride
(1)1,250 ..
..
..
chlordane
335
430 840
690
chlorobenzilate
1,040 1,220
..
>5,000
dichloropropane-
dichloropropene
(1)140 ..
(1,2)2,100
..
dicoful
1,100 1,000
1,230
1,000
dieldrin
46
46 90
60
endosulfan
43
18
130
74
See footnotes at end of table.
Acute Oral
and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
for Test Animals-Continued
Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Insecticide
Males Females
Males
Females
Organochlorine Insecticides-Continued
endrin
17.8 7.5
18
15
ethylene dichloride
(1)770 ..
(1,2)3,890
..
heptachlor
100
162 195
250
Kepone
125
125
>2,000 >2,000
lindane
88
91
1,000
900
methoxychlor
5,000 5,000
..
>6,000
mirex
740
600
>2,000 >2,000
paradichlorobenzene
3,850 3,900
.. ..
Perthane
>4,000 >4,000
..
..
Strobane
(1)200 ..
(1,2)>5,000
..
TDE
>4,000 >4,000
(1,2)>4,000
..
Telone
(1)250-500 ..
..
..
tetradifon
(1)>14,700 ..
(1,2)>10, 000
..
toxaphene
90
80 1,075
780
Organophosphorus Insecticides
Abate
8,600 13,000
>4,000
>4,000
azinphosmethyl
13
11 220
220
carbophenothion
30
10
54
27
chloropyrifos
155
82 202
..
coumaphos
41
15.5 860
..
crotoxyphos
110
74 375
202
crufomate
635
460 ..
..
Dasanit
4.1
1.8
19 4.1
demeton
6.2
2.5
14 8.2
diazinon
108
76
900 455
See footnotes at end of table.
Acute
Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
for Test Animals-Continued
Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Insecticide
Males Females
Males
Females
Organophosphorus Insecticides-Continued
dichlorvos
80
56
107
75
dicrotophos
21
16 43
42
dimethoate
215
245 610
610
dioxathion
43
23
235
63
disulfoton
6.8
2.3 15
6
Dyfonate
(1)>16.5 ..
(1,2)>150
..
EPN
36
7.7
230
25
ethion
65
27
245 62
famphur
(1)>35 ..
(1,2)>1,460
..
fenthion
215
245 330
330
Imidan
113
160
>2,000
1,550
malathion
1,375 1,000
>4,444
>4,444
methyl parathion
14
24 67
67
Methyl Trithion
98
120
215
190
mevinphos
6.1
3.7 4.7
4.2
monocrotophos
17.5
20 126
112
naled
250
..
800
..
Nemacide
270
.. ..
..
parathion
13
3.6 21
6.8
phorate
2.3
1.1
6.2
2.5
phosalone
120
135-170
1,390 ..
phosphamidon
23.5
23.5 143
107
ronnel
1,250 2,630
..
>5,000
tepp
1.05
..
2.4 ..
tetrapopyl
thiopyrophosphate
(1)1,450 ..
2,100
1,800
trichlorfon
630
560 >2,000
>2,000
See footnotes at end of table.
Acute
Oral and Dermal [LD.sub.50] Values of Insecticides
for Test Animals-Continued
Oral [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Dermal [LD.sub.50] (mg./kg.)
Insecticide
Males
Females Males
Females
Carbamate Insecticides
aldicarb
0.8
0.65
3 2.5
Bux
95
63
242
156
carbaryl
850
500
>4,000 >4,000
carbofuran
8.7
8.0
>1,000 >1,000
mexacarbate
19
34 >2,000
zineb
>5,000
>5,000
>2,500 >2,500
Other Insecticides
binapacryl
63
58 810
720
calcium arsenate
..
298
.. >2,400
cryolite
(1)200
..
.. ..
DN-111
(1)330
..
(1,4)>1,000 ..
ethylene dibromide
146
117
(1,2,3)300 ..
lead arsenate
..
1,050 ..
>2,400
metaldehyde
(1,5)ca. 1,000 ..
..
napthalene
2,200
2,400
>2,500
>2,500
nicotine sulfate
..
83 ..
285
ovex
(1)2,050 ..
..
..
oxythioquinox
1,800
1,100 >2,000
>2,000
paris green
..
100 ..
>2,400
propoxur
83
86
>2,400 >2,400
pyrethrins
470
263 (1,2)>1,880
..
rotenone
(1)50-75
..
(1,2)>940
..
ryania
1,200
..
(1,2)>4,000 ..
Uniroyal DO14
1,480
1,480 250
680
(1) Sex not
indicated.
(4) Value for guinea pigs.
(2) Value for
rabbits. (5) Value for
dogs.
(3) Approximate
[LD.sub.50].
Acute
24-Hour [LC.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
Rainbow Trout and Bluegills
(Data provided by
Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Columbia, Mo. Rainbow trout were tested at
55 [degrees] F. and
bluegills at 65 [degrees] or 75 [degrees].
Certain persistent insecticides exhibit
cumulative
toxicity for fish and shellfish at levels lower than shown
in this study.)
[LC.sub.50] for rainbow
[LC.sub.50] for bluegills
Insecticide
trout (p.p.b.)
(p.p.b.)
Abate
8,200
-
aldrin
14
22
azinphosmethyl
14
22
benzene hexachloride
76
560
binapacryl
42
41
carbaryl
3,500
3,400
carbophenothion
-
24
chlordane
22
54
chlorobenzilate
750
-
chlorpyrifos
32.6
3.4
crotoxyphos
140
760
cryolite
160,000
400,000
cube extract formulation
32
24
(4.85 percent
rotenone)
demeton
-
195
diazinon
380
54
dichlorvos
500
1,000
dichrotophos
15,000
38,000
dicofol
110
960
dieldrin
6
14
dimethoate
20,000
28,000
dioxathion
130
16
disulfoton
2,450
65
endosulfan
1.8
2.2
endrin
.7
.8
EPN
210
370
ethion
1,300
700
fenthion
840
1,800
Acute
24-Hour [LC.sub.50] Values of Insecticides for
Rainbow Trout and Bluegills-Continued
[LC.sub.50] for rainbow
[LC.sub.50] for bluegills
Insecticide
trout (p.p.b.)
(p.p.b.)
heptachlor
15
35
Kepone
66
260
lime sulfur
10
48
lindane
30
61
malathion
100
120
methoxychlor
20
31
methyl parathion
7,000
8,500
Methyl Trithion
1,800
1,200
mevinphos
34
41
mexacarbate
7,000
-
mirex
126,000
>100,000
monochrotophos
12,000
23,000
oxythioquinox
1,550
110
naled
250
2,200
Nemacide
1,600
4,300
ovex
860
870
parathion
2,000
56
Perthane
9
21
phorate
25
10
phosalone
11,000
5,100
phosphamidon
4,500
26,000
piperonyl butoxide
-
8,800
pyrethrins extract(1)
56
78
ryania
-
24,000
Strobane
12
15
TDE
30
56
tetradifon
3,700
1,100
toxaphene
7.6
7.2
trichlorfon
27,500
5,600
(1) Synergized
formulation containing 4.85 percent of pyrethrins.
CHEMICALS
REFERRED TO IN THIS HANDBOOK
[Common names for
pesticides approved by the American National
Standards Institute are indicated by an asterisk.
Chemical names conform to
those used in "Acceptable Common Names and Chemical
Names for the
ingredients Statement on Pesticide Labels," 2d ed.,
1972. Pesticides
Regulations Division, Environmental Protection Agency.]
Name Used
Identity
Abate [R]
O,O,O',O'-tetramethyl
O,O'-thiodi-p-phenylene
phosphorothioate
acrylonitrile
acrylonitrile
aldicarb (Temik [R])
2-methyl-2-(methythio)propionaldehyde
O-(methylcarbamoyl)oxime
(*)aldrin
hexachlorohexahydro-endo, exo-
dimethanonaphthalene 95% and
related
compounds 5%
aluminum phosphide
aluminum phosphide
azinphosmethyl
O,O-dimethyl S-[(4-oxo-1,2,3-benzo
triazin-3(4H)-yl)methyl] phosphorodithioate
benzene hexachloride
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, consisting
of several isomers and containing
a specified
percentage of gamma isomer
(*)binapacryl
2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenyl 3-methyl-
2-butenoate
borox
sodium tetraborate decahydrate
boric acid
boric acid
Bux [R]
a mixture of 3 parts m-(1-
methylbutyl)phenyl
methylcarbamate and 1 part
m(1-ethylpropyl)-
phenyl methylcarbamate
calcium arsenate
calcium arsenate
calcium cyanide
calcium cyanide
(*)carbaryl
1-naphthyl methylcarbamate
(*)carbofuran (Furadan [R])
2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl
methylcarbamate
carbon disulfide
carbon disulfide
carbon tetrachloride
carbon tetrachloride
(*)carbophenothion
S-[[(p-chlorophenyl)thio]methyl] O,O-diethyl
phosphorodithioate
Name Used
Identity
chlordane, technical
octachloro-4,7-methanotetrahydroindan 60% and
related compounds 40%
chlorobenzilate
ethyl 4,4'-dichlorobenzilate
chloroform
chloroform
chloropicrin
trichloronitromethane
(*)chlorphyrifos(Dursban [R])
O,O-diethyl O-(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl)
phosphorothioate
Compound 4072
2-chloro-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)vinyl diethyl
phosphate
coumaphos
O,O-diethyl
O-(3-chloro-4-methyl-2-oxo-2H-1-
benzopyran-7-yl) phosphorothioate.
crotoxyphos
dimethyl phosphate of alpha-methylbenzyl
3-hydroxy-cis-crotonate
(*)crufomate (Ruelene [R])
4-tert-butyl-2-chlorophenyl methyl
methylphosphoramidate
cryolite
sodium hexafluoroaluminate
Dasanit [R]
O,O-diethyl O-[p-(methylsulfinyl)phenyl]
phosphorothioate
demeton
O,O-diethyl O-[2-(ethylthio) ethyl]
phosphorothioate and O,O-diethyl
S-[2-
ethylthio) ethyl] phosphorothioate
diazinon
O,O-diethyl
O-(2-isoprohyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl)
phosphorodithioate.
dichloropropane-
dichloropropane-dichloropropene mixture
dichloropropene.
dichlorovos, technical
93 percent 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate
and 7 percent related compounds
dicofol
1,1-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethanol
dicrotophos
dimethyl phosphate ester with 3-hydroxy-N,N-
dimethyl-cis-crotonamide
dieldrin
hexachloroepoxyoctahydro-endo,exo-
dimethanonaphthalene 85% and
related
compounds 15%
(*)dimethoate
O,O-dimethyl S-(N-methylcarbamoyl methyl
phosphorodithioate
(*)dioxathion
2,3,-p-dioxanedithiol S,S-bis(O,O-diethyl
phosphorodithioate)
Name Used
Identity
diphenylamine
diphenylamine
disulfoton
O,O-diethyl S-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl]
phosphoro-
dithioate
DN-111 [R]
4,6,-dinitro-o-cyclohexylphenol,
dicyclohexylamine salt
dormant oil
a formulation of petroleum oil phytotoxic to
foliage prepared for sprays on
dormant plants,
usually an emulsifiable
concentrate of high oil
content
Dyfonate [R]
O-ethyl S-phenyl ethylphosphonodithioate
(*)endosulfan
6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,-9a-
hexahydro-6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathiepin
3-oxide
endrin
hexachloroepoxyoctahydro-endo-endo-
dimethanonaphthalene
EPN
O-ethyl O-(p-nitrophenyl)
phenylphosphonothioate
(*)ethion
O,O,O',O'-tetraethyl
S,S'-methylenebisphosphorodithioate
ethylene dibromide
1,2,-dibromoethane
ethylene dichloride
1,2,-dichloroethane
ethylene oxide
ethylene oxide
ethyl formate
ethyl formate
famphur
O,O,-dimethyl O-[p-(dimethyl-
sulfamoyl)phenyl] phosphorothioate
fenthion
O,O-dimethyl O-[4-(methylthio)-
m-tolyl] phosphorothioate
Flit MLO [R]
Mosquito larvicide oil (99% mineral oil)
heptachlor
heptachlorotetrahydro-4.7- methanoindene and
related compounds
hydrogen cyanide
hydrocyanic acid
Imidan [R]
N-(mercaptomethyl) phthalimide
S-O,O-dimethyl phosphorodithioate
Kepone [R]
decachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-
2H-cyclobuta [cd] pentalen-2-one
lead arsenate
lead arsenate
Name Used
Identity
lime sulfur
30% calcium polysulfide and various small
amount of calcium thiosulfate plus
water and
free sulfur
lindane
1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane, gamma
isomer
of not less than 99% purity
malathion
O,O-dimethyl dithiophosphate of dimethyl
mercaptosuccinate
mataldehyde
metaldehyde
(*)methomyl
S-methyl N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy)-
thioacetimidate
methoxychlor, technical
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxy-
phenyl)ethane
88% and related compounds
12%
methyl bromide
bromomethane
methyl chloride
chloromethane
methyl formate
methyl formate
methyl parathion
O,O-dimethyl O-(p-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
Methyl Trithion [R]
S-[[(p-chlorophenyl)thio]methyl] O,O-dimethyl
phosphorodithioate
mevinphos, technical
2-carbonethoxy-1-methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate
alpha isomer and related compounds
(*)mexacarbate (Zectran [R])
4-(dimethylamino)-3,5-xylyl methylcarbamate
mirex
dodecachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-1H-
cyclobuta[cd]pentalene
monocrotophos
dimethyl phosphate of 3-hydroxy-
N,N-dimethyl-cis-crotonamide
(*)naled
1,2,-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethyl dimethyl
phosphate
naphthalene
naphthalene
Nemacide
O-(2,4-dichlorophenyl) O,O-diethyl
phosphorothioate
(*)ovex
p-chlorophenyl p-chlorobenzenesulfonate
oxythioquinox
6-methyl-2,3-quinoxalinedithiol cyclic S,S-
dithiocarbonate
paradichlorobenzene
p-dichlorobenzene
parathion
O,O-diethyl O(p-nitrophenyl)
phosphorothioate
paris green
copper acetoarsenite
Perthane [R]
diethyldiphenyldichloroethane and related
compounds
Name Used
Identity
(*)phorate
O,O-diethyl S-[(ethylthio)methyl] phosphorodioate
(*)phosalone
O,O-diethyl S-[(6-chloro-2-oxobenzoxazolin-3-
yl)methyl] phosphorodithioate
(*)phosphamidon
2-chloro-2-diethylcarbamoyl-1-methylvinyl
dimethyl phosphate
piperonyl butoxide,
(butylcarbityl) 6-propylpiperonyl) ether 80% and
technical.
related compounds 20%
(*)propargite
2-(p-tert-butylphenoxy)cyclohexyl
2-propynyl sulfide
propoxur
o-isopropoxyphenyl methylcarbamate
propylene oxide
propylene oxide
pyrethrins
the active insecticidal constituents of
pyrethrum
(*)ronnel
O,O-dimethyl O-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl)
phosphorothioate
rotenone
the primary active compound of derris and
cube
roots
ryania (ryanodine)
powdered stemwood of Ryania speciosa
sabadilla
ground seeds of sabadilla containing
veratrine, a
complex mixture of alkaloids
Strobane [R]
terpene polychlorinates (65 percent chlorine)
sulfur
sulfur
sulfuryl fluoride
sulfuryl fluoride
summer oil
a formulation of petroleum oil prepared for
use
in sprays to plant foliage,
usually an emulsifiable
concentrate of high oil
content
tartar emetic
antimony potassium tartrate
TDE
dichlorodiphenyidichloreoethane
Telone [R]
mixed dichloropropenes
tepp
tetraethyl pyrophosphate
(*)tetradifon
4-chlorophenyl 2,4,5-trichlorophenyl sulfone
tetrapropyl
O,O,O,O-tetrapropyl dithiopyrophosphate
thiopyrophosphate
(Aspon [R]).
toxaphene
chlorinated camphene containing 67-69 percent
chlorine
trichlorfon
dimethyl (2,2,2,-trichloro-1-hydroxyethyl)-
phosphonate
zineb
zinc ethylenebis[dithiocarbamate]
EXPLANATION OF TABLES THAT FOLLOW
The tables that
follow list the insecticides to use in the control of the
major insect pests and give the formulations to purchase,
dosages to use, and
brief instructions on where and when to apply these
insecticides. The tables
also include the legal tolerances for insecticide residues
permitted on food or
feed products and the minimum time that must be allowed
after applying the
suggested dosages of insecticides in order to meet these
tolerances. Other
safety restrictions on the specific use of certain
insecticides are given in the
last column of the same page as the insecticide.
Always read these safety
restrictions to see if any of them apply to the insecticide
that you plan to use
and then observe those that are appropriate.
For general precautions in the
use of insecticides, see page.
With a few
exceptions, the crops, insects, and insecticides are listed
alphabetically. See
page for the identification of the insecticides.
The insecticides
listed for each insect are alternatives and are to be used
separately unless mixtures of two or more materials are
indicated by plus (+)
signs.
"Formulation" refers to the form of the insecticide, usually
as purchased.
Dusts, baits, fumigants, aerosols, and granules are
generally applied at the
strength purchased.
Emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, suspension
concentrates, and powders are to be diluted with water
unless otherwise
indicated. The
amount of water to use will depend on the output of the
equipment.
A single entry in
a box applies to all the insecticides and formulations
opposite that box, except as specified.
A dash in any
column indicates that there is no appropriate entry.
The word
"extended" in the tolerance column means that the registration
for this particular use of the insecticide has been extended
to allow time for
the establishment of a finite tolerance.
It will be withdrawn when the
extension expires.
Therefore, the insecticide must not be used on the
indicated crop or animal without determining whether the
registration is still
in effect. Check
with your county agricultural agent or with your State
agricultural experiment station.
The term
"nonfood use" in the tolerance column means that a tolerance is
not needed. The
Pesticides Regulation Division has determined that based on
consideration of the pattern of use and the nature of the
chemical, there is no
reasonable expectation of any residue reaching and being
retained in or on
food or feed.
The word
"safe" in the tolerance column means that the insecticide is
"generally recognized as safe GRAS" under the
provisions of 21 CFR 120.2
of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as amended.
A tolerance is not
needed for such insecticides.
Also, when "exempt" appears in this column, it
means that under the provisions of this act, the insecticide
used in this
specific way has been exempted from the requirement for
establishment of a
tolerance.
The following abbreviations are used:
Bait
B
Dust
D
Emulsifiable
concentrate
EC
Fumigant
F
Granules
G
Solution
soln.
Spray
S
Ultra low volume
concentrate
ULV
Wettable
powder
WP
The insecticide
dosages given in this handbook are the maximums
suggested for mature plants and animals.
Often they may be reduced for
immature plants or animals without loss in
effectiveness. Effective dosages
may also be reduced by careful attention to application
under favorable
weather conditions.
However, be careful not to exceed the suggested dosages
except as indicated on the registered insecticide
label. Dosages larger than
those suggested in these tables may leave illegal residues
on the harvested
product unless more time is allowed between the last
application and harvest
than is suggested in the table.
The principles
followed in the commercial use of insecticides on crops,
livestock, or stored products should also be followed in
their use in the home
and the home garden.
However, untrained persons should not use any
insecticide labeled POISON and illustrated with the drawing
of the skull and
crossbones.
Trade names are
used in this handbook solely for the purpose of providing
specific information.
Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee
or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture.
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Appendix B
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The information in this manual is not and can not be
complete. The
information presented here cannot be immediately applicable
or appropriate
to all regions or to every storage need.
You may well require
further technical assistance in adapting these materials and
others
to your grain storage situation.
Some of that help can come from
books; much, from organizations and people.
The Tropical Products Institute (TPI) may already be a
familiar name
to you. This agency
does a great deal to gather and distribute information
worldwide on grain and grain storage problems.
Materials from
the TPI library have been of great value in the preparation
of this
manual.
Peace Corps and VITA are grateful to TPI for its permission
to reprint
that agency's bibliography of materials on the various
aspects of farm-level
grain storage.
Tropical Products Institute
G64
Crop storage bibliography
(with particular
reference to
the storage of durable
agricultural produce in tropical
and sub-tropical countries)
Mrs. S.M. Blatchford and A.J. Wye
This bibliography
has been produced by the Tropical Products Institute, a British
Government
organization which helps developing countries to derive greater benefits
from their
renewable resources.
Reproduction of
this bibliography, in whole or in part, is gladly permitted provided that
full
acknowledgement is given to the Tropical Products Institute, Foreign and
Commonwealth
Office, (Overseas Development Administration), and to the authors.
Requests for
further information on this subject should be addressed to:
Tropical Stored
Products Centre
(Tropical Products
Institute)
London Road
Slough SL3 7HL
Bucks.
Contents
TEXTBOOKS
JOURNALS
ANNUAL REPORTS
HANDBOOKS, BULLETINS, SPECIAL REPORTS
ADVISORY LEAFLETS
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
N O T E S
This bibliography attempts to bring together a selection of
the more important publications
dealing with tropical crop storage; it clearly cannot be
exhaustive.
Where possible, the prices (at time of publication) and
addresses are given for obtaining
publications listed here, excluding scientific papers.
A list of the most common addresses
appears below.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION:
Sales Branch, 101-113, Pentonville Road, London, N.1.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD:
Tolcarne Drive, Pinner, Middlesex.
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
& AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION:
Distribution & Sales Section, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington D.C. 20402, U.S.A.
Textbooks
ANDERSON, J.A. and ALCOCK, A.W. (Eds).
1954
Storage of cereal grains and their products.
St. Paul, Minn: Amer.
Ass.
Cereal Chem., 1954, ix + 515 pp. (Out of print:
obtainable from Univ.
Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., price 10.00 [pounds].
Currently under revision).
BUSVINE, J.R.
Insects and hygiene. The biology
and control of insect pests of medical
1966 and
domestic importance. London:
Methuen and Co., 1966, 2nd rev.
edn,
xi + 467 pp. Price 5.00 [pounds].
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1969 Grain
storage. The role of fungi in quality
loss. Minneapolis, Minn.:
Univ.
Minnesota Press, 1969, vii + 153 pp. Price $6.50.
COTTON, R.T. Pests
of stored grain and grain products.
Minneapolis, Minn: Burgess
1963 Publg
Co., 1963, rev. edn, 2 + i + 318 pp.
(Out of print).
MUNRO, J. W. Pests
of stored products. London:
Hutchinson (The Rentokil Library),
1966 1966,
234 pp. Price 2.10 [pounds].
TRISVYATSKII, L.A.
1966
Storage of grain. Moscow:
Izdatel'stva 'Kolos', 1966, 3rd edn, 406 pp.
(Translated into English by Keane, D.M. and edited by Kent, N.L. &
Freeman, J.A. Boston Spa: natn.
Lending Libr., 1969, 3 volumes, 244,
287
& 307 pp. Price 1.25 [pounds] per vol., 3.75 [pounds] the set).
Journals
BULLETIN OF GRAIN TECHNOLOGY.
Quarterly.
Hapur: Foodgrain
Technologists' Research Association of
India. Price $3.00 per annum.
JOURNAL OF STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH.
Quarterly. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Price 12.00 [pounds] per annum.
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS INFORMATION.
Biannual. Bulletin of the
Tropical Stored Products Centre (Tropical
Products Institute). Free.
(Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products
Centre, (TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
Annual Reports
CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
Annual reports of the C.F.T.R.I., Mysore - 2, India.
Priced.
INFESTATION CONTROL.
Reports of the Infestation Control Laboratory (Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries & Food).
London: HMSO.
Priced.
NIGERIAN STORED PRODUCTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
Annual reports of the Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute,
Federal
Ministry of Trade. Lagos:
Fed. Minist. Inform., Printing Div. Priced.
PEST INFESTATION RESEARCH.
Annual reports of the Pest Infestation Laboratory (Agricultural Research
Council). London:
HMSO.
Priced.
TROPICAL PRODUCTS INSTITUTE.
Annual reports (up to and including 1967)
and then Biennial reports of the
Tropical Products Institute, (Overseas Development Administration).
May
be
priced. (Enquiries to the Scientific
Secretariat, Tropical Products
Institute, 56-62 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1X 8LU).
TROPICAL STORED PRODUCTS CENTRE:
MINISTRY OF OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT.
1970. Tropical Stored Products
Centre. A Report on the work 1965 -
1966.
(The
work of the Centre prior to 1965 was reported as part of the
Annual Report 'Pest Infestation Research'; from July 1967 it forms a
part
of
the Annual and Biennial Reports of the Tropical Products Institute.
Enquiries to the Tropical Stored Products Centre, (TPI), London Road,
Slough SL3 7HL, Bucks).
Handbooks, Bulletins, Special Reports
BROWN, W.B].
Fumigation with methyl bromide under gas-proof sheets.
Dep. Sci. Ind.
1959 Res.,
Pest Infest. Res. Bull. No. 1. London:
HMSO, 1959, 2nd edn, ii +
44
pp. Price 22 1/2p.
COTTERELL, G.S. and HOWE, R.W.
1952
Insect infestation of stored food products in Nigeria.
(Report of a survey,
1948
- 50, and of control measures adopted).
Colonial Res. Publn No. 12.
London: HMSO, 1952, 40 pp. Price
25p.
EASTER, S.S.
(Ed). Preservation of grains in
storage. Papers presented at the
international
1947
meeting on infestation of foodstuffs, London, 5 - 12 Aug., 1947.
Wash.,
D.C.: Fd. Agric. Org. agric.
Stud. No. 2, 1948, 174 pp. Price $1.50.
FREEMAN, J.A.
Control of pests in stored agricultural products with special reference
to
1958
grain. Report of a survey in
North and South America and certain Mediterrane;
countries in 1954 and 1955. Org.
eur. econ. Coop., eur. Productivity
Agency
Project No. 212, Feb. 1958.
Paris: OEEC, 1958, 169 pp.
Price 57 1/2p.
(OEEC Dist. & Sales Serv., 33
Rue de Franqueville, Paris 16e and overseas
agents).
FURMAN, D.L.
Suggested guide for the use of insecticides to control insects affecting
crops,
1968
livestock, households, stored products, forests and forest
products. U.S.
Dep.
Agric., agric. Res. Serv., agric. Handbk No. 331, 1968, rev. edn, xvi +
273
pp + 2 app. Price $1.50.
HALL, D.W.
Handling and storage of food grains in tropical and sub-tropical
areas. FAO
1970
agric. Dev. Paper No. 90.
Rome: UNFAO, 1970, xiv + 350 pp.
Price
US $6 (2.40 [pounds]).
HINTON, H.E. and CORBET, A.S.
1963
Common insect pests of stored food products.
A guide to their identification.
Econ.
Ser. Brit. Museum (nat. Hist.), No. 15.
London: British Museum,
1963,
4th edn, vi + 61 pp. Price 17 1/2p.
HOLMAN, L.E.
(Compiler). Aeration of grain in
commercial storages. U.S. Dep. Agric.,
1960 Mktg
Res. Rep. No. 170, 1960 (revised and reprinted Sept. 1966), 46 pp.
Price
35 [cents].
HUGHES, A.M. The
mites of stored food. Tech. Bull.
Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, No. 9, 1961,
1961 vi +
287 pp. London: HMSO.
Price 87 1/2p.
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.
Report of the international conference on the protection of stored
products,
1968
Lisbon 27 - 30 Nov. 1967. EPPO
Publications, Ser. A, No. 46-E. Paris:
EPPO,
1968,171 pp. Price 1.65 [pounds].
(EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANIZATION.
Report of the working party on Stored Products of Tropical Origin
(Hamburg,
1969
5 - 6 Nov. 1968).
EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 51-E.
Paris:
EPPO, 1969,
38 pp
+ 7 tables. Price 50p.
(EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
INTERNATIONAL:
EUROPEAN AND MEDITERRANEAN PLANT PROTECTION
ORGANISATION.
Report of the Working Party on Stored Products of Mediterranean Origin
1970
(Lisbon, 13 - 14 March, 1969).
EPPO Publications, Ser. A, No. 56.
Paris:
EPPO,
1970, 85 + xxx pp. Price unknown.
(EPPO, 1 rue le Notre, Paris).
JOUBERT, P. C. and DE BEER, P. R.
1968 The
toxicity of contact insecticides to seed-infesting insects.
Series No. 6.
Tests
with bromophos on maize. S. Afr. Dep.
Agric., tech. Serv., tech.
Commun. No. 84. Pretoria:
Government Printer, 1968, 9 pp.
KAMEL, A.H. and SHAHBA, B.A.
1958
Protection of stored seeds in Egypt.
Bull. Minist. Agric. Egypt, Ext. Dep.,
No.
295. Cairo:
General Organization for Government Printing Offices,
1958,
16 pp.
LAHUE, D.W.
Evaluation of several formulations of malathion as a protectant of grain
1969
sorghum against insects - in small bins.
U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv.,
Mktg
Res. Rep. No. 828, 1969, iv + 19 pp.
Price 20 [cents].
LAHUE, D.W.
Evaluation of malathion, diazinon, a silica aerogel and a diatomaceous
1970 earth
as protectants on wheat against lesser grain borer attack ... in small
bins. U.S. Dep. Agric., agric.
Res. Serv., Mktg Res. Rep. No. 860, 1970,
iv +
12 pp.
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Safe storage of food grains in the Republic
of South Africa. S. Afr. Dep.
1963
Agric., tech. Serv., tech. Commun. No. 13.
Pretoria: Government
Printer,
1963,
ii + 45 pp.
LOCHNER, E.H.W. Fumigation of maize in railway trucks in
transit to the ports. (In Africaans
1964 with
English Summary). S. Afr. Dep. Agric.,
tech. Serv., tech. Commun.
No.
25. Pretoria:
Government Printer, 1964, ii + 62 pp.
McFARLANE, J.A., MARTIN, H.G., DIXON, W.B. and MOLLISON,
D.W.
1961
Prevention and control of infestation of stored grain by insect pests
and
rodents. Prepared jointly by the
Storage and Infestation Division (Mktg
Dept,
Minist. Trade and Ind.) and Plant Protection Division (Minist. Agric.
and
Lands). Kingston, Jamaica:
Govt Printer, 1961, iii + 57 pp.
MONRO, H.A.U.
Manual of fumigation for insect control.
F.A.O. agric. Studies, No. 79.
1971
Rome: FAO, 1971, xii + 381
pp. Second edn, revised.
Price 2.80 [pounds].
ORDISH, G. (Gen.
Ed). Pest control in groundnuts.
PANS Manual No. 2.
London:
1967
Minist. Overseas Dev., trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1967, iv
+ 138 pp.
Price
45p. (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London, WC1X
8LU).
PREVETT, P.F. An
investigation into storage problems of rice in Sierra Leone.
Colonial
1959 Res.
Studies, No.28. London:
HMSO, 1959, 52 pp.
RANSOM, W.H.
Buildings for the storage of crops in warm climates.
Dep. sci. ind. Res.
1960
Trop. Building Studies, No.
2. London:
HMSO, 1960, 24 pp. Price
22 1/2p.
SALMOND, K.F.
Investigations into grain storage problems in Nyasaland with special
1957
reference to maize (Zea mays L.).
Colonial Res. Publn No. 21.
London:
HMSO,
1957, 49 pp. Price 22 1/2p.
SMITH, C.V.
Meteorology and grain storage.
Tech. Note U.N. Wld met. Org., No. 101
1969
(WMO No. 243 TP 133).
Geneva:
Secretariat of World Meteorological
Organisation, 1969, xvi + 47 pp. Price 1.00 [pounds].
STEELE, B. (Gen.
Ed.). Pest control in rice.
PANS Manual No. 3.
London: Minist.
1970 Overseas
Dev. trop. Pestic. Res. H.Q. & Inf. Unit, 1970, ii + 270 pp.
Price
62 1/2p. (56-62 Gray's Inn Rd, London
WC1X 8LU).
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1968
Improved storage and its contribution to world food supplies.
Chapter 4
in
'State of Food and agriculture, 1968', pp 115 - 143. Rome:
FAO,
1968,
205 pp. Price $5.75 or 2.30 [pounds].
UNITED NATIONS: FOOD
AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION.
1969 Crop
Storage. Technical Report No. 1 of the
Food Research and Development
Unit,
Accra, Ghana. Prepared for the
Government of Ghana by FAO
acting as executing agency for the United Nations Development Programme,
based
on the work of J. Rawnsley. PL:
SF/GHA 7.
Rome: FAO, 1969,
ix +
89 pp + 7 app.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
SERVICE, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES BRANCH, STORED PRODUCTS INSECTS
SECTION.
1958 Stored
grain pests. U.S. Dep. Agric. Fmrs
Bull. No. 1260, 1958, rev.,
46
pp. Price 25 [cents].
WOGAN, G.N.
(Ed.). Mycotoxins in
foodstuffs. Proceedings of a symposium
at Massachusetts
1965 Inst.
Technol., March 1964. Cambridge,
Mass: Mass. Inst. Technol.
Press, 1965, xii + 291 pp. Price 3.75 [pounds].
WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME.
1970 Food
storage manual. (Prepared by the
Tropical Stored Products Centre,
Ministry of Overseas Development).
Rome: FAO, 1970, 3 vols, 820 pp.
Price
$18.
Advisory Leaflets
BOOTH, C., HOLLIDAY, P. and SUBRAMANIAN, C.V.
1969
C.M.I. descriptions of pathogenic fungi and bacteria.
Set 22, sheets 211 - 220.
Kew: Commonw. Mycol. Inst.,
1969. Price 25p. (Commonw.
Mycol. Inst., Ferry Lane, Kew, Surrey).
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1967
Methods for sampling oilseeds.
Br. Stand. No. 4146, 1967, 16 pp.
Price 30p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968
Methods of test for cereals and pulses.
Part 2. Determination of
moisture
content of cereals and cereal products (basic reference method).
Br. Stand.
No.
4317, Part 2, 1968, 12 pp. Price 25p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1968
Methods of test for cereals and pulses.
Part 4. Determination of
impurities
in
pulses. Br. Stand. No. 4317, Part 4,
1968, 7 pp. Price 20p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969 Methods
for sampling cereals (as grain). Br.
Stand. No. 4510, 1969, 19 pp.
Price
50p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969
Methods for sampling pulses. Br.
Stand. No. 4511, 1969, 16 pp. Price
40p.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION.
1969
Recommended common names for pesticides.
Br. Stand. No. 1831, 1969,
4th
rev., 107 pp. Price 2.00 [pounds].
HARMOND, J.E., BRANDENBURG, N.R. and KLEIN, L.M.
1968
Mechanical seed cleaning and handling.
U.S. Dep. Agric., agric. Res. Serv.
(in
conj. w. Oregon agric. Exp. Stn), agric.
Handbk No. 354, 1968, 56 pp.
Price
55 [cents].
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1966
Fumigation with the liquid fumigants carbon tetrachloride, ethylene
dichloride and ethylene dibromide.
Precautionary measures. London:
HMSO,
1966, rev. edn, i + 8 pp. Price 7 1/2p.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968
Heating of grain in store.
Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 404,
1968,
rev., 6 pp. Single copies free.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1968
Insect pests in food stores.
Minist. Agric. Fish. Fd, Adv. Leafl. No. 483,
1968, rev., 8 pp.
Single copies free.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES and FOOD.
1969
Fumigation with ethylene oxide.
Precautionary measures, 1969.
London:
HMSO,
1969, 8 pp. Price 9p.
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969 Guide
lines for mold control in high-moisture corn.
U.S. Dep. Agric., Fmrs
Bull.
No. 2238, 1969, rev., 16 pp. Price 10 [cents].
UNITED STATES:
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE:
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
SERVICE, MARKET QUALITY RESEARCH DIVISION.
1969
Controlling insects in farm-stored grain.
U.S. Dep. Agric., Leafl. No. 553,
1969,
8 pp. Price 10 [cents].
Scientific Papers
A full list of papers published by staff of the Tropical
Stored Products Centre is available on
request from the TSPC, (TPI), London Road, Slough SL3 7HL,
Bucks).
AMARO, J. P. and CANCELA DA FONSECA, J. P.
1957
Panorama actual dos problemas fitossanitarios dos produtos armazenados
em
Africa. (Comprehensive survey of
phytosanitary problems of stored
products in Africa). Garcia de
Orta, 5 (4), 675 - 699.
ASHMAN, F. The
chemical control of stored food insect pests in Kenya.
J. agric. vet.
1963
Chem., 4 (2), 44-48.
ASHMAN, F. An
assessment of the value of dilute dust insecticides for the protection of
1966
stored maize in Kenya. J. appl. Ecol., 3(1), 169 - 179.
ASHMAN, F.
Inspection methods for detecting insects in stored produce.
Trop. stored
1966 Prod.
Inf., (1 2), 481 - 494.
ASHMAN, F., ELIAS, D. G., ELLISON, J. F. and SPRATLEY, R.
1969 An
instrument for detecting insects within food grains.
Milling, 151 (3),
32,
34 & 36.
ATTIA, R. and KAMEL, A. H.
1965 The
fauna of stored products in U.A.R. Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 49, 221 - 232.
BAILEY, S.W.
Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests.
II.
Calandra oryzae
1956
(small strain). Aust. J. agric.
Res., 7 (1), 7 - 19.
BAILEY, S.W.
Airtight storage of grain, its effects on insect pests.
III.
Calandra oryzae
1957
(large strain). Aust. J. agric.
Res., 8 (6), 595 - 603.
BAILEY, S.W. The
effects of percussion on insect pests of grain.
J. econ. Ent., 55 (3),
1962 301 -
305.
BAILEY, S. W.
Airtight storage of grain - its effect on insect pests.
IV.
Rhyzopertha
1965
dominica (F.) and some other Coleoptera that infest stored grain.
J.
stored Prod. Res., 1 (1), 25 - 33.
BARNES, J. M.
Pesticide residues as hazards.
PANS, 15 (1), 2 - 8.
1969
BREESE, M.H. The
infestibility of stored paddy by Sitophilus sasakii (Tak.) and
1960
Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). Bull.
ent. Res., 51 (3), 599 - 630.
BREESE, M.H.
Studies on the oviposition of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) in rice and
paddy.
1963 Bull.
ent. Res., 53 (4), 621 - 637.
BURRELL, N.J. The
chilled storage of grain. Ceres, (5),
15-20.
1969
CABRAL, A.L. and MOREIRA, I.S.
1960 Da
occorrencia de algunas pragas de produtos ultramarinos en poroes de
navios mercantes (Carreira da Guine).
(Occurrence and distribution of
some
pests of stored products in ships' holds of cargo ships of the Guinea
Line). Garcia de Orta, 8 (1),
47-57.
CASWELL, G.H. The
infestation of cowpeas in the Western Region of Nigeria.
Trop. Sci., 3
1961
(4), 154 - 158.
CASWELL, G.H. and CLIFFORD, H.T.
1960
Effect of moisture content on germination and growth of fumigated maize
grain. Emp. J. exp. Agric., 28,
139 - 149.
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and KAUFMANN, H.H.
1965
Deterioration of stored grains by
fungi. A. Rev. Phytopath., 3, 69 - 84.
CHRISTENSEN, C.M. and LOPEZ, L.C.
1963
Pathology of stored seeds. Proc.
int. Seed Test. Ass., 28, 701 - 711.
CLARKE, J.H.
Fungi in stored products. Trop.
stored Prod. Inf., (15), 3 - 14.
1968
COAKER, T.H.
'Insack' treatment of maize with insecticide for protection against
storage
1959
pests in Uganda. E. Afr. agric.
J., 24 (4), 244 - 250.
COLLINGS, H.
Hermetic sealing of a stack of maize with bituminous roofing felt.
1960
Trop. Agric., Trin., 37 (1), 53 - 60.
COURSEY, D.G. Yam
storage. I:
a review of yam storage practices and of information on
1967
storage losses. J. stored Prod.
Res., 2 (3), 229 - 244.
COVENEY, R.D.
Sacks for the storage of food grains.
Trop. stored Prod Inf., (17), 3-22.
1969
CRANHAM, J.E.
Insect infestation of stored raw cocoa in Ghana.
Bull. ent. Res., 51 (1),
1960 203
- 222.
DAVEY, P.M. and ELCOATE, S.
1967
Moisture content/relative humidity equilibria of
tropical stored produce.
Part
3. Legumes, spices and beverages.
Trop. stored Prod Inf., (13), 15 - 34.
DAVIES, J.C.
Aluminium phosphide for bulk grain fumigation in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric.
1958 J.,
24 (2), 103 - 105.
DAVIES, J.C. A
note on the control of bean pests in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 24 (3),
1959 174
- 178.
DAVIES, J.C.
Coleoptera associated with stored products in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 25
1960 (3),
199 - 201.
DAVIES, J.C.
Storage of maize in a prefabricated aluminium silo in tropical
conditions.
1960 E.
Afr. agric. J., 25 (4), 225 - 228.
DAVIES, J.C.
Experiments on the crib storage of maize in Uganda.
E. Afr. agric. J., 26
1960 (1),
71 - 75.
DEXTER, S.T., CHAVES, A.M. and EDJE, O.T.
1969
Drying or anaerobically preserving small lots of grain for seed or food.
Agron. J., 61 (6), 913 - 919.
ELDER, W.B.
CSIRO develops aeration system for farm-stored grain.
Pwr Fmg Bett. Fmg
1969
Dig., 78 (10), 10 - 13.
FULLERTON, R.L.
Low-cost farm buildings for storage and equipment housing in Ghana.
1968
Ghana J. agric. Sci., 1 (2), 165 - 170.
GILES, P.H. The
storage of cereals by farmers in Northern Nigeria.
Trop. Agric., Trin.,
1964 41
(3), 197 - 212.
GILES, P.H.
Control of insects infesting stored sorghum in Northern Nigeria.
J. stored
1965
Prod. Res., 1 (2), 145 - 158.
GILES, P.H.
Maize storage: the problem of
today. Trop. stored Prod. inf., (14), 9
- 19.
1967
GILES, P.H.
Observations in Kenya on the flight activity of stored products insects,
1969
particularly Sitophilus zeamais Motsch.
J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (2), 317 - 329.
GOLUMBIC, C. and DAVIS, D. F.
1966
Radiation disinfestation of grain and seeds.
Proc. Symp. Food Irradiation,
Karlsruhe, 1966, pp 473 - 488.
Vienna: Int. Atomic Energy
Agency.
GONEN, M. and CALDERON, M.
1968
Changes in the microfloral composition of moist sorghum stored under
hermetic conditions. Trop. Sci.,
10 (2), 107 - 114.
GRAHAM, W.M.
Warehouse ecology studies of bagged maize in Kenya.
I. The distribution
1970 of
adult Ephestia (Cadra) cautella (Walker) (Lepidoptera, Phycitidae).
II. Ecological observations of
an infestation by E. cautella. III.
Distribution
of the
immature stages of E. cautella. IV.
Reinfestation following
fumigation with methyl bromide gas.
J. stored Prod. Res., 6 (2): I,
147 - 155;
II,
157 - 167; III, 169 - 175; IV, 177 - 180.
GREEN, A.A. The
protection of dried sea-fish in South Arabia from infestation by
1967
Dermestes frischii Kug.
(Coleoptera, Dermestidae). J.
stored Prod. Res.,
2
(4), 331 - 350.
HALL, D.W.
Prevention of waste of agricultural produce during handling, storage and
1968
transportation. Trop. stored
Prod. Inf., (15), 15 - 23.
HALL, D.W. Food
storage in the developing countries. J.
R. Soc. Arts, 117 (5156),
1969 562
- 579.
HALLIDAY, D.
Build-up of free fatty acid in Northern Nigerian groundnuts.
Trop. Sci., 9
1967 (4),
211 - 237.
HAYWARD, L.A.W.
Infestation control in stored groundnuts in Northern Nigeria.
Wld Crops,
1963 15
(2), 63 - 67.
HOWE, R. W.
Entomological problems of food storage in Northern Nigeria.
Bull. ent.
1952
Res., 43 (1), 111 - 144.
HOWE, R.W. A
summary of estimates of optimal and minimal conditions for population
1965
increase of some stored products insects.
J. stored Prod. Res., 1 (2), 177 - 184.
HOWE, R.W.
Losses caused by insects and mites in stored foods and feeding
stuffs. Nutr.
1965
Abstr. Rev., 35, 285 - 293.
HOWE, R.W. and CURRIE, J.E.
1964 Some
laboratory observations on the rates of development, mortality and
oviposition of several Bruchidae breeding in stored pulses.
Bull. ent. Res.,
55
(3), 437 - 477.
HYDE, M.B.
Hazards of storing high-moisture grain in airtight silos in tropical
countries.
1969
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (18), 9 - 12.
JOFFE, A.
Moisture migration in horizontally stored bulk maize:
influence of grain-infesting
1958
insects under South African conditions.
S. Afr. J. agric. Sci., 1
(2), 175 - 193.
JOFFE, A. The
effect of physical disturbance or 'turning' of stored maize on the
1963
development of insect infestation.
I. Grain elevator studies. S.
Afr. J.
agric. Sci., 6, 55 - 64.
KAPUR, N.S. and SRIVASTAVA, H.C.
1959
Storage and preservation of fatty foods.
Food Sci., Mysore, 8, 257 - 262.
KHALIFA, A. On
open-air and underground storage in the Sudan.
Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte,
1960 53
(44), 129 - 142.
KHALIFA, A. The
relative susceptibility of some varieties of sorghum to Trogoderma
1962
attack. Emp. J. exp. Agric., 30
(118), 133 - 136.
KOCKUM, S.
Protection of cob maize stored in cribs.
E. Afr. agric. J., 19 (2), 69-73.
1953
KOCKUM, S.
Control of insects attacking maize on the cob in crib stores.
E. Afr. agric.
1958 J.,
23 (4), 275 - 279.
LE PELLEY, R.H. and KOCKUM, S.
1954
Experiments in the use of insecticides for the protection of grains in
storage.
Bull. ent. Res., 45 (2), 295 - 311.
McFARLANE, J.A. An
annotated record of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera
1963
associated with stored produce in Jamaica.
Trop. Agric., Trin., 40 (3), 211-216
McFARLANE, J.A. The
productivity and rate of development of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera,
1968
Curculionidae) in various parts of Kenya.
J. stored Prod. Res., 4 (1), 31 - 51.
McFARLANE, J.A.
Stored products insect control in Kenya.
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (18), 13 - 23
1969
McFARLANE, J.A.
Treatment of large grain stores in Kenya with dichlorvos slow-release
strips
1970 for
the control of Cadra cautella. J. econ.
Ent., 63 (1), 288 - 292.
MACKAY, P.J.
Theory of moisture in stored produce.
Trop. stored Prod. Inf., (13), 9 - 14.
1967
MAJUMDER, S.K. and BANO, A.
1964
Toxicity of calcium phosphate to some pests of stored grain.
Nature,
Lond., 202 (4939), 1359 - 1360.
MAJUMDER, S.K., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and GODAVARI BAI, S.
1961
Pre-harvest prophylaxis for infestation control in stored food grains.
Nature, Lond., 192 (4800), 375 - 376.
MAJUMDER, S.K., NARASIMHAN, K.S. and SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1959 Insecticidal
effects of activated charcoal and clays.
Nature, Lond, 184
(4693), 1165 - 1166.
MAJUMDER, S.K. and NATARAJAN, C.P.
1963 Some
aspects of the problem of bulk storage of foodgrains in India.
Wld
Rev. Pest Control, 2 (2), 25 - 35.
MISHRA, A.B., SHARMA, S.M. and SINGH, S.P.
1969
Fungi associated with Sorghum vulgare under different storage conditions
in
India. PANS, 15 (3), 365 - 367.
PAGE, A.B.P. and LUBATTI, O.F.
1963
Fumigation of insects. A. Rev.
Ent., 8, 239 - 264.
PARKIN, E.A. The
protection of stored seeds from insects and rodents.
Proc. Int. Seed
1963
Test. Ass., 28 (4), 893 - 909.
PARKIN, E.A. The
onset of insecticide resistance among field populations of stored product
1965
insects. J. stored Prod. Res., 1
(1) 3 - 8.
PINGALE, S. V., KADKOL, S.B., RAO, M.N., SWAMINATHAN, M. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1957
Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:
II. Studies on husked,
handpounded,
milled raw rice and parboiled milled rice.
J. Sci. Fd Agric., 8 (9)
512
- 516.
PINGALE, S.V., RAO, M.N. and SWAMINATHAN, M.
1954
Effect of insect infestation on stored wheat.
I. Studies on soft wheat.
J.
Sci. Fd Agric., 5 (1), 51 - 54.
PIXTON, S.W.
Moisture content - its significance and measurement in stored products.
1967 J.
stored Prod. Res., 3 (1), 35 - 47.
PIXTON, S.W. A
possible rapid method of determining the moisture content of high-moisture
1970
grain. J. Sci. Fd Agric., 21
(9), 465 - 467.
POINTEL, J-G.
Contribution a la conservation du niebe, du vouandzou, du mais, des
1968
arachides et du sorgho.
(Contribution to the preservation of
cowpeas,
Voandzeia subterranea (Bambarra groundnut), maize, groundnuts and
sorghum). Agron. trop., Nogent,
23 (9), 982 - 986.
POINTEL, J-G.
Essai et enquete sur greniers a mais togolais.
(A trial and survey on
1969
Togolese maize granaries).
Agron. trop., Nogent, 24 (8), 709 - 718.
PRADHAN, S., MOOKHERJEE, P.B. and SHARMA, G.C.
1965 Pusa
bin for grain storage. Indian Fmg, 15
(1), 14 - 16.
PREVETT, P.F. A
study of rice storage under tropical conditions.
J. agric. Engng Res., 4
1959 (3),
243 - 254.
PREVETT, P.F. The
distribution of insects in stacks of bagged groundnuts in Northern
1964
Nigeria. Bull. ent. Res., 54 (4), 689 - 713.
QURESHI, Z.A., WILBUR; D.A. and MILLS, R.B.
1970
Irradiation of early instars of the Angoumois Grain Moth.
J. econ. Ent.,
63
(4), 1241 - 1247.
RHYNEHART, T. The
control of insects infesting groundnuts after harvest in the Gambia:
1960
IV. The practical application of
control measures. Trop. Sci., 2 (3),
134 - 139.
ROBERTSON, J.V.
Trials with small capacity grain silos in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
E. Afr.
1968
agric. for J., 34 (2), 263 - 276.
ROWLANDS, D.G. The
metabolism of contact insecticides in stored grains.
Residue Rev., 17,
1967 105
- 177.
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1965
Storage structures for large scale handling and preservation of food
grain.
Bull. Grain Tech., 3 (2), 62 - 69.
SARID, J.N. and KRISHNAMURTHY, K.
1968
Protection of marketable grain.
Bull. Grain Tech., 6 (1), 16 - 20.
SARID, J.N., RAI, L., KRISHNAMURTHY, K. and PINGALE, S. V.
1965
Studies on the large scale storage of food grains in India.
Part II. Studies
on
the relative suitability of cement concrete and aluminium bins for
storing wheat.
Bull. Grain Tech., 3 (4), 135 - 141.
SARID, J.N., RAI, L. and PINGALE, S.V.
1967
Studies on the large scale storage of food grains in India.
Part III.
Studies
on
the insect and temperature fluctuations in bag storage of wheat.
Bull.
Grain Tech., 5 (1), 3 - 11.
SODERSTROM, E.L. Effectiveness of green electroluminescent
lamps for attracting stored-product
1970
insects. J. econ. Ent., 63 (3),
726 - 731.
SOUTHGATE, B.J.
Plastics films for the bulk storage of food.
Plast. Inst. Trans. & J., 33
1965
(103), 11 - 15.
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1960
Germination of cereal, sorghum and small legume seeds after fumigation
with hydrogen phosphide. J.
econ. Ent., 53 (1), 1 - 4.
STRONG, R.G. and LINDGREN, D.L.
1961
Effect of methyl bromide and hydrocyanic acid fumigation on the
germination
of
corn seed. J. econ. Ent., 54 (8), 764 -
770.
SWAINE, G. Trials
on the underground storage of maize of high moisture content in
1957
Tanganyika. Bull. ent. Res., 48
(2), 397 - 406.
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., PINGALE, S.V.,
SWAMINATHAN, M. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1958
Effect of insect infestation on stored field bean (Dolichos lablab) and
black gram (Phaseolus mungo). Fd
Sci., Mysore, 9, 79 - 82.
VENKAT RAO, S., NUGGEHALLI, R.N., SWAMINATHAN, M., PINGALE,
S.V. and
SUBRAHMANYAN, V.
1958
Effect of insect infestation on stored grain:
III. Studies on Kaffir corn
(Sorghum vulgare). J. Sci. Fd
Agric., 9 (12), 837 - 839.
WATTERS, F.L.
Effects of grain moisture content on residual toxicity and repellency of
1959
malathion. J. econ. Ent., 52
(1), 131 - 134.
WATTERS, F.L.
Physical methods of insect control.
Proc. Ent. Soc. Manitoba, 21,
1965 18 -
27.
WATTERS, F.L. An
appraisal of gamma irradiation for insect control in cereal foods.
1968
Manitoba Ent., 2, 37-45.
WILKIN, D.R. and GREEN, A.A.
1970
Polythene sacks for the control of insects in grain.
J. stored Prod. Res.,
6
(1), 97 - 101.
WRIGHT, F.N. New
storage, transportation and handling techniques for tropical agricultural
1965
produce. Congr. Prot. Cult.
trop., Marseilles, 1965, pp 93 - 98.
Marseilles:
Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie.
WRIGHT, F.N. and SOUTHGATE, B.J.
1962 The
potential uses of plastics for storage with particular reference to rural
Africa. Trop. Sci., 4 (2), 74 -
81.
Conversion Tables
Simple
methods are given here for
converting
English and metric units
of
measurement. Following these is
a series
of useful conversion tables
for units
of area, volume, weight,
pressure
and power.
LENGTH CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
3 is useful
for quick conversion from meters and
centimeters to feet and inches, or
vice versa. For more
accurate results
and for distances greater than 3 meters,
Equations:
use either the tables in Figure 2 or
the equations.
1 inch = 2.54cm
1 foot
= 30.48cm
The chart in Figure
3 has metric divisions =
0.3048m
of one centimeter to three meters,
1 yard =
91.44cm
and English units in inches and feet
= 0.9144m
to ten feet. It is
accurate to about 1
mile = 1.607km
plus or minus one centimeter.
= 5280 feet
1cm
= 0.3937 inches
Example:
1m
= 39.37 inches
= 3.28
feet
An example will
explain how to use 1km
= 0.62137 miles
the tables. Suppose
you wish to find =
1000 meters
how many inches are equal to 66cm.
On
the "Centimeters into Inches" table look
down the leftmost column to 60cm and then
right to the column headed 6cm.
This
gives the result, 25.984 inches.
FIGURE
2
Inches into centimeters
(1 in. = 2.539977 cm.)
inches 0
1
2 3
4
5 6
7
8
9
0
cm.
2.54 5.08
7.62
10.16 12.70
15.24
17.78 20.32
22.86
10
25.40
27.94 30.48
33.02
35.56 38.10
40.64
43.18 45.72
48.26
20
50.80
53.34 55.88
58.42
60.96 63.50
66.04
68.58
71.12 73.66
30
76.20
78.74 81.28
83.82
86.36 88.90
91.44
93.98 96.52
99.06
40
101.60
104.14 106.68
109.22
111.76 114.30
116.84
119.38 121.92
124.46
50
127.00
129.54 132.08
134.62
137.16 139.70
142.24
144.78 147.32
149.86
60
152.40
154.94 157.48
160.02
162.56 165.10
167.64
170.18 172.72
175.26
70
177.80
180.34 182.88
185.42
187.96 190.50
193.04
195.58 198.12
200.66
80
203.20
205.74 208.28
210.82
213.36 215.90
218.44
220.98 223.52
226.06
90
228.60
231.14 233.68
236.22
238.76 241.30
243.84
246.38 248.92
251.46
Centimeters into inches
(1 cm. = 0.3937 in.)
cm.
0
1
2 3
4
5 6
7
8 9
0
inches
0.394 0.787
1.181
1.575 1.969
2.362
2.756 3.150
3.543
10
3.937
4.331 4.724
5.118
5.512 5.906
6.299
6.693 7.087
7.480
20
7.874
8.268 8.661
9.055
9.449 9.843
10.236
10.630 11.024
11.417
30
11.811
12.205 12.598
12.992
13.386 13.780
14.567
14.567 14.961
15.354
40
15.748
16.142 16.535
16.929
17.323 17.717
18.110
18.504 18.898
19.291
50
19.685
20.079 20.472
20.866
21.260 21.654
22.047
22.441 22.835
23.228
60
23.622
24.016 24.409
24.803
25.197 25.591
25.984
26.378 26.772
27.165
70
27.559
27.953 28.346
28.740
29.134 29.528
29.921
30.315 30.709
31.102
80
31.496
31.890 32.283
32.677
33.071 33.465
33.858
34.252 34.646
35.039
90
35.433
35.827 36.220
36.614
37.008 37.402
37.795
38.189 38.583
38.976
<FIGURE 101>
WEIGHT CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
5 converts pounds
and ounces to kilograms and grams or
vice versa. For
weights greater than
ten pounds, or more accurate results,
use the tables (Figure 4) or conversion
equations. See
"Length Conversion,"
Figure 2, for an example of the use of
the tables.
On the chart,
notice that there are
sixteen divisions for each pound to
represent ounces.
There are 100 divisions
only in the first kilogram, and
each division represents ten grams.
The chart is accurate to about plus
or minus twenty grams.
Equations:
1 ounce = 28.35
grams
1 pound =
0.4536 kilograms
1 gram
=
0.03527 ounce
1 gram
=
2.205 pounds
FIGURE 4
Kilograms into pounds
(1 kg. = 2.20463 lb.)
kg.
0
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
0
lb.
2.20 4.41
6.61
8.82 11.02
13.23
15.43 17.64
19.84
10
22.05
24.25 26.46
28.66
30.86 33.07
35.27
37.48 39.68
41.89
20
44.09
46.30 48.50
50.71
52.91 55.12
57.32
59.53 61.73
63.93
30
66.14
68.34 70.55
72.75
74.96 77.16
79.37
81.57 83.78
85.98
40
88.19
90.39 92.59
94.80
97.00 99.21
101.41
103.62 105.82
108.03
50
110.23
112.44 114.64
116.85
119.05 121.25
123.46
125.66 127.87
130.07
60
132.28
134.48 136.69
138.69
141.10 143.30
145.51
147.71 149.91
152.12
70
154.32
156.53 158.73
160.94
163.14 165.35
167.55
169.76 171.96
174.17
80
176.37
178.58 180.78
182.98
185.19 187.39
189.60
191.80 194.01
196.21
90
198.42
200.62 202.83
205.03
207.24 209.44
211.64
213.85 216.05
218.26
Pounds into kilograms
(1 lb. = 0.45359 kg.)
lb.
0
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
0
kg.
0.454 0.907
1.361
1.814 2.268
2.722
3.175 3.629
4.082
10
4.536
4.990 5.443
5.897
6.350 6.804
7.257
3.175 8.165
8.618
20
9.072
9.525 9.979
10.433
10.886 11.340
11.793
12.247 12.701
13.154
30
13.608
14.061 14.515
14.969
15.422 15.876
16.329
16.329 17.237
17.690
40
18.144
18.597 19.051
19.504
19.958 20.412
20.865
21.319 21.772
22.226
50
22.680
23.133 23.587
24.040
24.494 24.948
25.401
25.855 26.308
26.762
60
27.216
27.669 28.123
28.576
29.030 29.484
29.937
30.391 30.844
31.298
70
31.751
32.205 32.659
33.112
33.566 34.019
34.473
34.927 35.380
35.834
80
36.287
36.741 37.195
37.648
38.102 38.555
39.009
39.463 39.916
40.370
90
40.823
41.277 41.730
42.184
42.638 43.091
43.545
43.998 44.452
44.906
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
The chart in Figure
1 is useful for
quick conversion from degrees Celsius
(Centigrade) to degrees Fahrenheit and
vice versa. Although
the chart is fast
and handy, you must use the equations
below if your answer must be accurate
to within one degree.
Equations:
Degrees Celsius = 5/9 x (Degrees
Fahrenheit -32)
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1.8 x (Degrees
Celsius) +32
Example:
This example may
help to clarify the
use of the equations; 72F equals how
many degrees Celsius?
72F = 5/9 (Degrees
F -32)
72F = 5/9 (72 -32)
72F = 5/9 (40)
72F = 22.2C
Notice that the
chart reads 22C, an
error of about 0.2C.
Conversion Tables
Units of Area
1 Square Mile
= 640 Acres
= 2.5899 Square Kilometers
1 Square Kilometer =
1,000,000 Square Meters = 0.3861
Square Mile
1 Acre =
43,560 Square Feet
1 Square Foot =
144 Square Inches = 0.0929
Square Meter
1 Square Inch =
6.452 Square Centimeters
1 Square Meter =
10.764 Square Feet
1 Square Centimeter = 0.155 Square Inch
Units of Volume
1.0 Cubic Foot =
1728 Cubic Inches = 7.48 U.S.
Gallons
1.0 British Imperial Gallon = 1.2 U.S. Gallons
1.0 Cubic Meter =
35.314 Cubic Feet = 264.2 U.S.
Gallons
1.0 Liter =
1000 Cubic Centimeters = 0.2642 U.S.
Gallons
Units of Weight
1.0 Metric Ton =
1000 Kilograms = 2204.6
Pounds
1.0 Kilogram
= 1000 Grams
= 2.2046 Pounds
1.0 Short Ton =
2000 Pounds
Conversion Tables
Units of Pressure
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 144 Pounds per square foot
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 27.7 Inches of Water(*)
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 2.31 Feet of Water(*)
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 2.042 Inches of Mercury(*)
1.0 Atmosphere
= 14.7 Pounds per square inch (PSI)
1.0 Atmosphere
= 33.95 Feet of Water
1.0 Foot of Water = 0.433 PSI
= 62.355 Pounds per square foot
1.0 Kilogram per square centimeter
= 14.223 Pounds per square inch
1.0 Pound per square inch
= 0.0703 Kilogram per square centimeter
(*) at 62 degrees Fahrenheit (16.6 degrees Celsius)
Units of Power
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 746 Watts = 0.746 Kilowatt (KW)
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 550 Foot Pounds per second
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 33,000 Foot Pounds per minute
1.0 Kilowatt (KW) = 1000 Watts
= 1.34 Horsepower (HP) English
1.0 Horsepower (English)
= 1.0139 Metric Horsepower (cheval-vapeur
1.0 Metric Horsepower
= 75 Meters X Kilogram/Second
1.0 Metric Horsepower
= 0.736 Kilowatt = 736 Watts
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