Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Asia - General Information (IIRR, 1994, 145 p.)

1994

IIRR

The International Institute of Rural Reconstruction is a nonprofit, nongovernment organization that aims to improve the quality of lives of the rural poor in developing countries through rural reconstruction: a sustainable, integrated, people-centered development strategy generated through practical field experiences.

IIRR publications are not copyrighted. The Institute encourages the translation, adaptation and copying of materials for noncommercial use, providing an acknowledgement to IIRR is included.

Correct citation: IIRR. 1994. Ethnoveterinary medicine in Asia: An information kit on traditional animal health care practices 4 vols. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.

Published 1994 by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Silang, Cavite 4118 Philippines

Printed in the Philippines
ISBN 0-942-717-627

Collaborating organizations

Brot Bread for the World
f�r die Welt P.O. Box 10 11 42
D-70010 Stuttgart, Germany

Heifer Project
INTERNATIONAL

1015 South Louisiana P.O. Box 808 Little Rock, Arkansas 72203, U.S.A.

THE WORLD BANK

Small Grants Program 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A.

German Appropriate
Technology Exchange

Dag-Hammarskj�ld-Weg 1 P.O. Box 5180 65726 Eschborn, Germany

International Institute of Rural Reconstruction

Y.C. James Yen Center Silang, Cavite 4118 Philippines

Participants
and workshop staff

Participants
Nita Abena (Philippines)
Jayvir V. Anjaria (India)

Luka Choemuen (Thailand)
Baldwin Dy (Philippines)
Mila Gracia Ejercito (Philippines)
Tomas J. Fernandez, Jr. (Philippines)
Nitya S. Ghotge (India)
Scott Killough (USA)
Vinai Klunsorn (Thailand)
Sivagurunathar Kumaraswamy (Sri Lanka)
Chheng Heat Leao (Cambodia)
Carmencita Mateo (Philippines)
Evelyn Mathias (Germany)
Constance McCorkle (USA)
Sommay Mekhagnomdara (Laos)
Tri Budhi Murdiati (Indonesia)
H.D. Wasantha Piyadasa (Sri Lanka)
Sagari R. Ramdas (India)
Piyasak Sukarnthapong (Thailand)
Aem Wangklang (Thailand)
Medino A. Yebron (Philippines)

Translators
Montawadee Krutmechai
Winai Yothinsirikul

Steering committee and workshop management

Nita Abena
Mila Gracia Ejercito
Scott Killough
Evelyn Mathias
(Workshop Coordinator)
Paul Mundy
Jim Oprecio
Jimmy Ronquillo
Editors
David Abbass
Lyn Capistrano-Doren
Constance McCorkle
Raylene Montes
Paul Mundy
Jimmy Ronquillo
Sheila Siar
Desktop publishing
Carmenia May Magno
Jel Montoya
Angie Poblete

Artists
Florante C. Belardo
Ricardo E. Cantada
Peaches Gamboa
Arnold Gardon
Ronie Ramacula
Bernie Remoquillo

Logistics
Lhai S. Kasala
Lorna Villaflor

Support
Thess Aquino
Carding Belenzo
Paulit Garcia
Gerry Medina
Jel Montoya
Rollie Ramos

Introduction to the workshop process

Introducing Western technologies in developing countries can have side effects and disadvantages that may outnumber their benefits. Western veterinary medicine is no exception. Drawbacks include:

· Drugs are unavailable in rural areas or their supply is erratic.

· Imported drugs are expensive.

· Many stockraisers either underdose to save money, or overdose because they do not understand the instructions for use.

Stockraisers would often be better off if they knew ethnoveterinary remedies and practices for the most common animal diseases. Such remedies and practices reflect centuries of experience and trial and error, they are adapted to the local culture and environmental conditions, and they are inexpensive and locally available.

Local veterinary practices have been systematically recorded and documented for more than a decade, but the results have found little application in development efforts. There are two reasons for this:

· Many international and national organizations have not yet recognized the role and potential contribution of ethnoveterinary medicine in development. This contrasts with the case in human ethnomedicine, which has been widely recognized and used by development organizations.

Little written information exists on practices that work and can be recommended. Without any guidelines on what to use and what not to use, development professionals hesitate to integrate ethnoveterinary practices into project design and implementation.

These manuals aim to overcome the latter constraint. They will facilitate the use of ethnoveterinary medicine and enable project designers and field personnel to tap this valuable resource. They are a ready-to- use package on ethnoveterinary remedies and practices that can be implemented and recommended in villages.

The manuals demonstrate that ethnoveterinary science contains many valuable, traditional practices which can serve as low-cost and practical alternatives for rural communities throughout the world. However, much remains to be done to document, assess and understand the wide range of ethnoveterinary practices used across the globe. We hope that the compilation of these practices will serve as an inspiration to the veterinary science and pharmacology research community to undertake studies to validate traditional livestock practices. We also hope that the simple, practical and low-cost practices outlined in these manuals will benefit rural households and communities whose livelihood involves livestock production.

How these manuals were compiled

The International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (JIM) has pioneered a rapid, efficient way to produce information materials through the use of participatory workshops. Such workshops bring together academics, officials, nongovernment organization staff, extension personnel and farmers, together with editors and artists in intensive, one- or two-week sessions to write, edit, illustrate and critique the materials. A complete set of materials can be drawn up within this brief period. Only minor editing and refinement are necessary to obtain material that is ready to print. This workshop process has two major advantages: it reduces the total amount of time needed to develop information materials and it profits from the expertise and resources of a wide range of participants and their organizations.

This approach was used to compile the ethnoveterinary manuals. Preparations for the workshop started several months before the actual workshop date. A steering committee composed of staff members of IIRR and the Philippine Program of Heifer Project International contacted organizations and asked them to recommend individuals who had experience in the application of ethnoveterinary medicine at the field level or had tested such remedies in farm animals. The steering committee also developed a list of tentative topics and sent it to recommended candidates for two purposes: (1) to ask them to verify suggested topics and suggest additional ones and (2) to discover in which areas they could contribute.

Finally, some 20 participants were selected on the basis of the following criteria: (1) country (no more than four per country in tropical Asia), (2) regional distribution within country, (3) extensive field or laboratory experience with ethnoveterinary medicine; and (4) potential contributions of the participant to avoid overlap and ensure a broad coverage of topics.

Based on the participants' responses to the topic list, the steering committee assigned six or seven specific topics to each participant and asked him or her to compile first drafts along guidelines provided. Participants brought these drafts as well as other resource materials to the workshop.

For the workshop proper, some 20 participants from Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and the USA met at IIRR on July 11-24, 1994. They included scientists, staff members of NGOs working at the field level and farmers.

During the workshop, the participants presented the drafts they had prepared, discussed these and critiqued them in plenary sessions. After each presentation, participants named additional remedies used in their countries for the disease or problem under discussion. Thus, the original drafts were enriched with remedies from several other countries in Asia.

All remedies were discussed and either accepted against a commonly agreed upon set of criteria, or rejected by the group if participants regarded them as harmful, dangerous or ineffective according to their professional judgement. Some topics were dropped, others combined or added. Editors and artists from IIRR helped each participant make the suggested changes in his or her topic. Through this process, second drafts of about 80 topics were developed and discussed.

The second drafts were again presented in three groups, one each for ruminants, swine and poultry. Each group discussed the drafts in detail, editing and checking the validity of each remedy. Again, editors and artists integrated the revisions to text and illustrations. The resulting third drafts then underwent a final review by the IIRR editorial team and were prepared for printing.

Because the final version of the topics reflected the inputs not only from those who had originally drafted the text but also from many other participants, it was decided not to name specific authors for each topic but to identify the entire group as authors for the complete set of manuals.

The initial stimulus for these manuals came from Dr. Julian Gonsalves of the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR). We would like to thank him for his support. IIRR would also like to thank the workshop participants for their hard work and invaluable contributions during the workshop. Without them, producing this set of materials would not have been possible.

The workshop and the printing of these manuals were supported by Bread for the World, Heifer Project International (HPI), the World Bank's Small Grants Program, the German Appropriate Technology Exchange Service (GATE) of the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and IIRR. The Research Institute for Veterinary Science in Bogor, Indonesia, supported the participation of the participant from Indonesia.

How to use these manuals

Audience and content

The ethnoveterinary information in this set of manuals is intended for use in the field by animal husbandry and agricultural extension personnel (both government and NGO), paraveterinarians, local livestock healers and veterinarians. The manuals can serve as reference materials for livestock care and treatment, can be used to validate or cross-check existing practices and experiences from throughout Asia and can be a source of inspiration to further test ethnoveterinary practices.

The manuals describe indigenous practices which have been shared by the workshop participants. They focus on the tropical region of Asia because areas across this similar agro-climatic zone will have similar flora. This helps to ensure that the plantbased ethnoveterinary remedies recommended in the manuals will be widely available and equally applicable.

Structure and organization of the manuals

The set is divided into four Booklets, three of which are species-specific: ruminants (small and large), swine and poultry. This fourth Booklet contains topics which are general in nature, are not species-specific and are. therefore, applicable to any of the species presented in the manuals.

The topics in the species-specific manuals are not necessarily divided along disease categories, but rather have been broadly presented to include the whole spectrum of "conditions" which a field practitioner may encounter in the care and management of livestock. Additionally, the manuals do not solely present a curative perspective to livestock care, but also include a range of traditional practices (e.g., housing, feeding, breeding, etc.) that focus on maintaining animal health and preventing diseases.

Cross-references (e.g., "see Housing") refer the reader to other relevant sections of the manuals. The References section contains publications that were consulted during the workshop to validate any particular remedy or that contain information on ethnoveterinary medicine.

Because of linguistic diversity across the region, the various remedies list the ingredients by their botanical (or Latin) name and a common English name. Many widely practiced remedies use commonly available and widely known species (e.g., garlic, ginger, coconut, banana, guava), so will be widely applicable. For such species, only the English name may appear in the text. The corresponding Latin name can be found in the Glossary of English and botanical names (page 46 in this manual). The Glossary of medicinal plants (page 49) provides the botanical name, the various plant Parts used and the known uses for each of the plants mentioned in the manuals.

@ This symbol highlights precautions to heed when using a treatment.
# This symbol highlights reminders.

$ This symbol marks diseases that can affect humans.

Topics which describe a disease or condition present the following information:

The treatments or remedies which require multiple ingredients are presented in a step-by-step "recipe" format which lists all ingredients to be used and describes how to prepare them. Many remedies which require only a single ingredient are presented in tables. Each remedy is identified by the "·" mark; where several remedies are presented, the choice of the remedy is left to the user. The specific socio-religious context of any given remedy has not been included, even though this may be critically important within the culture where the remedy or practice originates.

Intellectual property rights

All remedies and most dosages are based on local stockraisers' practices. Most treatments are widely used within a country or region and cannot be attributed to a single person or village. In a few cases, a remedy is known to be used by a certain individual. For such remedies, the individual's name and village are given.

Validation of practices

After each treatment, the countries where the treatment is practiced (as validated by the workshop group or through references) are presented in boldface. Immediately after the names of the countries is a series of numbers that reflect the validation criteria used in the workshop:

1 Workshop participants agreed that the treatment would be useful.

2 Treatment is widely used in a region or a country (some remedies were also validated against practices from outside Asia).

3 Workshop participants had first-hand knowledge of the remedy's use on-farm.

4 Traditional healers are known to use the remedy.

5 The remedy is cited in the literature in one of two ways: (1) it is used to treat the same problem in humans or another animal species; or (2) this plant has proven pharmacological activity to treat the problem in question. For instance, laboratory tests have shown that Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) leaf extract is effective against Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in vitro (Syat 1990). This tends to support the use of tobacco leaves in treating wounds.

6 The remedy has been scientifically validated as effective to treat the problem in the livestock species in question. Relevant references are given under the corresponding plant name in the Glossary of medicinal plants.

As can be seen from the validation codes after each remedy, relatively few treatments have been scientifically validated in the species in question (code 6). The wide use of some other plants or remedies in several locations or countries, however, lends support for the farmers' claim that these remedies are effective. It also suggests the need for careful scientific evaluation of these remedies, both in the laboratory and in clinical trials.

Because of the lack of scientific testing, it is not possible to vouch that every ingredient in every remedy acts directly to solve the problem in question. There may be additive, synergetic or nutritional effects that help alleviate the problem. It must be stressed again that these are remedies used by farmers and stockraisers. The workshop participants and IIRR have made every attempt to ensure that the remedies are effective and are not harmful. However, they cannot guarantee this or be held liable for any problems that arise from applying these practices.

Dosages

Dosages and preparation methods in indigenous practice are often imprecise and vary widely between individuals and regions. The dosages and methods given are those that, according to the professional judgement and experience of the workshop participants, are most suitable, are easy to prepare and are likely to be effective.

Unless noted to the contrary, all dosage quantities for treatments are for single dosage applications; in other words, each treatment should be prepared at the time of application according to the quantities specified. Dosages for treatments in swine are usually given in terms of live body weight (a simple calculation procedure for estimating live body weight for all species is explained on page 31). Remedies for ruminants are generally stated in terms of dosages for adult cattle or buffaloes. It is important to use appropriate dosages: for instance, a dose for an adult cow could kill a goat; on the other hand, a dose suitable for a goat may have no effect on a cow. Dosages for poultry are usually the amount needed to treat 10 adult birds.

Where possible, simple measurements (handful, cup, etc.) have been given for ease of use by field practitioners. More detailed measurements (milliliters, etc.) are also given to allow a practitioner to be as precise as the particular conditions may allow. The section on Common ''nils of measurement (page 28) gives approximate equivalents for various measures used.

Identification, collection and preparation of medicinal plants

Identification

Make sure that you know exactly which plant to use to treat a problem. The names of plants vary from one place to another. Different plant species may have the same local name. The botanical name of each plant used in these manuals is given with each remedy, except for the most common plants. Here are some things to check to make sure you use the right plant.

Type of plant

· Approximate size of the plant.
· Type: tree, woody, shrub, vine, grass.
· The position of flower or fruit in the plant (such as on the ton of stem. in the branches).

Leaves

· Approximative size
· Shape (number of leaflets or lobes, with ridges or not) and color.
· Texture (smooth or rough, with hair or not).
· Position and arrangement of the

Leaves

Flowers

· Type of flower; type of inflorescence.
· Size, color and shape of flowers and bud.

Flowers

Fruits

· Approximate size.
· Shape, color when young or ripe.
· Seed present or not.
· Size, shape and color of seeds.

Fruits

Bark

· Present or not.
· Color and texture (smooth or rough).

Collection

Know which materials to collect and what time to collect them. The content of the active ingredient may depend on the plant part, stage of growth, season of harvest, method of handling during collection, physical condition of its collection place and storage.

Leaves and stems are best collected during daytime and when the plant is about to bloom.

Flowers that have a smell are best collected when the flower buds are just about to open and in the morning when the sun is still low. Other flowers should be collected when they are in full bloom. Sometimes, collection should be done in batches since flowers do not bloom at the same time.

Unless the recipe says that unripe fruits will be used, fruits should be collected when they are ripe. Fleshy fruits which deteriorate rapidly should be gathered when they are somewhat ripe, preferably in the early morning or at nightfall.

Seeds are usually collected from thoroughly ripened fruits. Some dry-textured fruits fall off the plant or split open easily when fully ripened. As a result, seeds are easily scattered and lost. It is advisable to collect such fruits as soon as they start ripening.

Barks should be collected when the plants are in bloom or in vigorous growth. Barks should be collected from the trunk and branches.

Roots and other underground parts (e.g., rhizome, rootstock, stem tuber, bulb and stolon) are best collected when the plant is in full growth.

# Reminder

Avoid collecting plants in a way that kills the plant or damages its surroundings. Before collecting any, determine first how much of the plant and what parts are needed to prevent wastage. Collect only the plant parts you need. For instance, if you need only the leaves, take only the leaves and only the number that you need. Medicinal plants should be conserved to ensure their continuous supply.

After collection

Sorting and cleaning

Clean plant parts of soil and dust.

Plants that may have been exposed to pesticides should not be used. If you have no other choice, they should be washed properly in clear water. Clean and wash plants as quickly as possible to avoid damaging them.

Drying

Air-drying is the best way of drying herbal plants. Drying at high temperatures will destroy plant ingredients. Spread the plant materials thinly and evenly over an old newspaper, a bamboo mat, or chicken-wire screen. Put in the shade until the materials are dry. Drying can be done through artificial heat, especially in the rainy season. Heating devices vary from one place to another.

Cutting, trimming, grinding, chopping

These are done for various reasons:

· To increase the efficacy of the plants materials.
· To allow more active ingredients to go into the preparation.
· To reduce the toxicity or adverse effects of certain drugs.
· To shorten the duration of drying.
· To make the plant material more convenient to store.

Storing

Medicinal plants should be properly stored to preserve their quality. Otherwise, they may be attacked by insects, mites and fungus. Storage can also ensure the continuous supply and availability of the materials whenever they are needed. Dried plants should be kept in covered plastic containers or bottles. These should be covered tightly and kept in a cool, dry place away from sunlight. Label the container properly with the name of the plant and the date when it was collected. Do not use any stored herbal plant which has molds or is discolored.

Preparing herbal medicine

Plant materials can be either fresh or dry, depending on the need and preparation. If dried plants are to be used as a substitute for fresh parts, adjust the quantity or the weight since water is lost during drying.

Decoction

Boil the plant parts in water, preferably for 15-20 minutes from the time the water has started boiling. Some healers recommend boiling the plant materials until the original volume of the water is reduced to one half. Some plants are soaked or moistened. Ideally, plant materials should be decocted twice in order to extract their active ingredients thoroughly. Strain or filter the liquid either while it is still hot or after cooling.

Decoction

Infusion

Pour hot or cold water onto the fresh or dry plant material and allow it to stand. Cover the preparation tightly to stop important ingredients from being lost. The length of time needed to prepare an infusion depends on the type of plant material and whether the water is hot or cold. In general, hot infusions need to stand for only 5-15 minutes; cold infusions may require up to 24 hours. Filter the preparation (and allow hot liquid to cool) before administering to the sick animal.

Infusion

Powder

Pound and grind the dried plant materials into coarse, intermediate or fine particle sizes. Sift the powder (once or several times) through coarse or fine sieves to get the required particle size.

Powder

Juice

Pound the fresh plant materials, then pass them through a cheesecloth or any fine piece of cloth in order to get the juice. Or you may just squeeze the plant parts to extract the juice.

Juice

Poultice or paste

A poultice is a moist, semisolid preparation which is applied directly on the skin. Prepare it by grinding the plant materials (either fresh or dry), sometimes with a little oil, water, molasses, honey, or other liquids.

Poultice or paste

Bolus

A bolus is made by pounding fresh or dried plant material' and adding sufficient binding agent such as honey or molasses. Roll it or shape it with your hand to make a round or oval ball

Bolus

Application of herbal medicine

Drenching

The application of liquid preparation through the mouth is called drenching. It can be used for swine, ruminants and poultry. Hold the head level so that the medicine does not an into the lungs. For swine and ruminants, use a bamboo tube, a softdrink bottle, a wine bottle or a bottle gourd. Use a dropper or straw for poultry.

Drenching

Swine

· Lie the animal on its front on the ground and tie it down or ask someone to hold it.

· Tie the snout with a piece of rope. Hold one end of the rope tightly or tie it to a post so the animal's mouth is open and it cannot bite your hands or the bottle. Put the end of the bottle into the mouth and slowly pour the liquid into the mouth. Make sure the animal swallows the liquid.

Swine

Swine - continue

Ruminants

1 Tie the animal to a tree or pole.

2 With small ruminants, mount the animal and hold it between your thighs.

3 With one hand, hold the upper jaw so that the animal opens its mouth. With cattle and buffaloes, you can use a rope through the nose ring to hold the mouth open. With the other hand, put the end of the bottle in the side of the animal's mouth and slowly pour the liquid into the mouth.

Ruminants

Chickens

Birds can be held by the person who will administer the medicine or by someone else. Use a syringe or dropper or you can use a rice or sorghum straw.

Hold the upper beak with the left thumb or first finger. Push the lower beak down with your finger or the medicine dropper. Hold the head level so the medicine does not go into the lungs.

Drop or squirt the medicine into the mouth.

Chickens

Force-feeding

The application of solid preparations through the mouth is called "force-feeding". It is used for ruminants, swine and poultry. The procedure is similar to that for drenching. After you have put the solid medicines into the mouth, make sure that the animal swallows them. In ruminants, this can be done by massaging the throat. An easy way to force-feed animals is to put solid medicines either into a banana or cooked sweet potatoes and feed this to the animal.

Force-feeding

Medicine mixed with feed and water

In all species, both liquid and solid medicines can be given with feed and water. They can be:

· Mixed thoroughly with the feed.

· Mixed with some of the feed; give the remaining feed only if the animal has eaten all of the medicated part. To treat individual poultry, put the bird and the medicated feed together under a basket until the feed has been eaten.

· Dissolved in drinking water. Use only as much water as the animal can drink at one time.

· Sprinkled on the feed ("top-dressing").

Topical application

Poultice

· A poultice is a soft, usually heated preparation that is applied to a sore or inflammation.

· If necessary, keep the poultice on if necessary by tying a cloth or strip of banana trunk or coconut leaves over it.

Poultices are used for swine, ruminants and poultry.

Fomentation

A fomentation is a warm, moist substance (such as a wet cloth) applied to the affected parts of the body. It is used to ease pain and inflammation in swine and ruminants.

Compress

A compress is similar to a fomentation, but is always dry.

This is used for swine and ruminants.

Direct application

Rub the preparation directly on the affected part.

This is used for swine, ruminants and poultry.

Nasal application

Drop medicine directly into the nostril or apply it as vapor as shown in the illustrations. This is used in all species.

Nasal application

Vaginal application

This application is used in cows and sows that have an infection of the birth canal, for example: after retained placenta or other birthing difficulties.

To apply solid medicines

1 Clip your nails, clean your hands thoroughly and apply vegetable oil to them as a lubricant.

2 Clean the animal's vulva with soap and warm water.

3 Take the medicine in one hand and cup this hand into a cone-shape.

4 Insert this hand into the vagina when the muscles of the birth canal are relaxed (for instance, between contractions during birthing). Leave the medicine in the vagina and slowly pull your hand out.

To flush the vagina with liquids

1 Clean and wash the stalk of a papaya leaf and lubricate its tip with vegetable oil.
2 Insert the stalk slowly about 10 cm deep into the vagina.
3 Pour the liquid medicine into the vagina through the hollow stalk until the liquid flows over.

Anal application

This can be used for ruminants and swine.

1 Shape the medicine into a small ball.

2 Carefully push it into the animal's anus. If this is difficult, dip the ball into the water or oil before inserting it in the anus.

In the eye

This can be used in all species.

Use a rice straw, sorghum straw, medicine dropper or plastic dropper. Apply remedy directly into the eyes.

In the eye

Fumigation

Fumigation is the use of smoke to drive away insects.

Burn dried leaves. Cover the fire with fresh banana leaves to make a lot of smoke.

Fumigation

Hanging bouquet

Bind plants into a bouquet and hang inside the houses. This can be used for poultry, swine and ruminants.

Hanging bouquet

Common units of measurement

Many farmers do not have accurate ways of measuring ingredients for medicines. For many of the remedies in these manuals, accurate dosages are neither appropriate nor possible. This section gives some approximate equivalents for commonly available measures. Common containers, such as glasses, cups, spoons and bottles, may vary from country to country or even within countries. You should check that these equivalents are correct for your area before using them.

Liquid

· Cup (Philippines)
· Cups (teacup, India)
· Spoons

Common units of measurement

Bottles (Philippines)

Common units of measurement

Bottles (India)

Common units of measurement

Bottles are often marked with their volume. Common sizes are 1 liter, 750 ml, 375 ml and 320 ml.

Drinking glass (Philippines)

Common units of measurement

Drinking glass

Common units of measurement

Dropper

Common units of measurement

Powder

Powder

Figure

Figure

Chopped leaves

150-200 leaves of Azadirachta indica = 1 handful
300 leaves of Ocimum sp. = 1 handful
15-25 leaves of Eucalyptus tereticornis = 1 handful
10 leaves of Areca catechu = 1 handful

Estimating live weight

Cattle and buffaloes

Measure the chest girth of large ruminants with a tape measure or a string. Use the table below to estimate the weight.

Source: Veterinary Research Institute, Sri Lanka

Small ruminants

Measure the heart girth of small ruminants (goats or sheep) using a tape measure or string. Pull the tape tight. Use the table below to estimate the weight.

Source: Sinn (1983)

Swine

Live weight of swine can be estimated by measuring the body length (from the back of the head to the tail head) and the heart girth of the animal with a tape measure. Using the table below, an approximate weight can be calculated. For example, if the body length is 130 cm and the heart girth 110 cm, the swine weighs about 105 kg.

Swine

Body length

Simple surgical techniques

Fractures

A fracture is a crack or a break in a bone. Fractures are caused by accidents or falls. If a fracture is not treated immediately, the affected area may not regain its normal function.

Fractures

Symptoms

Symptoms

· Swelling at the site of fracture which does not subside.
· The fracture site is painful.
· You can hear a crackling sound when you touch or move the fracture.
· The animal has difficulty using the affected area.

The fracture site is painful

Prevention

· Avoid accidents or falls of your livestock while using draft animals or when sending them out to graze in hilly areas.

· Take extra care with pregnant animals. Their bones are much weaker than other animals'.

Treatments

To treat pain

Boil 4-7 tablespoons of fresh, mature roots of Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant) in 500 ml of water for 10 minutes. For adult cattle and buffaloes, drench this amount of the liquid once a day for 3 days. Caution: prolonged use of Mimosa pudica can be dangerous.

For minor fractures and cracks in the bone

Grind a handful of fresh Symphytum officinale (comfrey) leaves and use as a poultice. Change the poultice once a day for 1 week until the animal regains the use of its limb.

For more serious fractures

Follow these steps:

1 Put the animal in a comfortable position.

2 Boil 1 kg of fresh leaves of Cissampelos pareira in 1 liter of water for half an hour. Drench adult cattle and buffaloes with 200 ml of the decoction (give 100 ml to calves, goats or sheep). This will relax the animal's muscles an hour after drinking.

3 Position animal carefully and comfortably, with the affected area facing upwards.

4 Using a rope, straighten the affected limb and align the bones. Be careful not to hurt the animal.

5 Shave the hair and clean the affected area with clean water.

6 Pour vegetable oil on newspaper. Wrap several layers of newspaper around the joint as a cast to keep the joint from moving. This helps reduce the swelling slightly. Leave on for one day.

7 The next day, remove the newspaper. Tie a clean cloth around the area to cover the fracture and protect the skin.

Wrap several layers of newspaper

8 Position splints to keep the joint from moving. Normally, four splints are needed around the leg.

Four splints are needed around the leg.

9 Dip strips of clean cloth in one of the plaster mixtures (see box) and bandage firmly around the limb. The bandage must not be too tight; you should be able to insert your finger under it.

The bandage must not be too tight

10 Leave the cast on for 710 days in young animals. Depending on the type of the fracture, it may take 3-4 weeks in adult animals before the cast can be removed.

Depending on the type of the fracture

How to make plaster

Use one of the following mixtures to make plaster. Make enough of the mixture to cover the fracture site. Dip strips of cloth in this mixture.

· Grind 2 bricks and mix with a sufficient quantity of egg white to make a smooth plaster. (Western India. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Mix 10 egg whites, 3 teaspoons of latex from Euphorbia neriifolia and 2 teaspoons of red oxide of mercury. (Western India. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Grind a handful of Tamarindus indica (tamarind) leaves and mix it with anthill mud. Add a little water to make a fine paste. (Western India. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Mix equal amounts of fresh goat milk, fresh goat droppings (from a goat stall), ash and egg whites. (Western India. 1, 2, 3, 4)

Splints

Splints support fractures and prevent the broken bone from moving. Splints must be made of stiff but light material, such as bamboo, the stalk of coconut or palmyra palm leaves, or the bark of Areca catechu.

After treating the fracture

The bone takes approximately 3-6 weeks to heal, depending on the age of the animal and its health. Bones of young animals heal faster. Too much movement of the affected part will delay healing.

· Allow the animal to rest.
· Give the animal easily digestible and nutritious feed.
· Add a handful of ground limestone, chalk or eggshells to every 10 kg of feed.
· If the cast falls off, replace it immediately with a fresh one.

Bone fractures in very large ruminants are difficult to treat. This is especially true for fractures in the upper limbs. Such animals may develop sores. In this case, consult a professional (a local expert, respected healer or veterinarian).

Working animals may never regain the full use of the affected part. They may not be able to pull heavy carts or plows. In most cases, it will be most practical to sell or slaughter the animal.

Warts

Warts are small, solid growths on the surface of skin. Warts on the tongue can interfere with eating. Warts around the nostrils block the breathing passage. Warts on the teats make milking painful for the animal. Warts on the penis hinder the passage of urine.

Warts

Treatment

Treatment

Remove the wart using any of the following:

· Tie a thread or 3-4 strands of horse hair tightly around the wart. This will cut off the blood supply to the wart. It will shrink, dry up and eventually fall off. (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

· Apply 1 or several drops of latex of Euphorbia neriifolia or the latex from a papaya trunk, fruit or leaves on the wart. The amount of latex depends on the size of the wart. Apply twice a day until the wart falls off. (1, 2, 3, 4)

· Crush 2-3 fresh leaves and petals of a single flower of Calendula officinalis (calendula). Extract the juice and apply at least 3 drops on the wart twice a day until the wart falls off. The amount of juice depends on the size of the wart. (1, 2, 3, 4)

· Tie an entire Piper belle (betel) leaf over the wart like a bandage. Use a string to keep the leaf in place. Change the bandage twice a day until the wart falls off. Also used to treat abscesses (see below). (1, 2, 3, 4)

· Mix 2-3 crystals of copper sulfate with a drop of water. Apply on the wart using a matchstick. Caution: Copper sulfate is strong enough to burn your fingers. (1, 2, 3, 4)

· Squeeze 1-2 cloves of garlic directly onto the wart. Do this once a day till the wart falls off. (1, 2, 3, 4)

Abscesses

Symptoms

Symptoms

An abscess is a rounded, hot, painful swelling full of pus. A single or many abscesses may be found on the body.

Cause

Abscesses may have various causes, including infected wounds, irritants on the skin and internal disease. They may also be caused by using dirty instruments, syringes or needles. If the animal has fever as well as abscesses, it may have an infectious disease (see Infectious diseases in species-specific manuals). Infected matter from an abscess which falls on open wounds may cause more abscesses, severe pain and swelling.

Prevention

· Keep the animal clean and well-fed.
· Clean and sterilize syringes, knives and other instruments before using them on animals.
· Clean wounds properly (see Wounds in species-specific manuals).

Treatment

Use any of the treatments below twice a day until the abscess has dried up. If the animal has fever, see also Fever in species-specific manuals. If the abscess does not subside, or if there are other symptoms, check the section on Infectious diseases and other sections. Consider getting help from a professional.

· Grind a handful of fresh neem leaves to make a paste. Apply it on the affected area as a poultice.

· Grind a handful of Odina wadder (sesharam) leaves and mix with half this amount of vegetable oil. Apply it on the abscess.

· Tie a Piper betle (betel) leaf over the abscess to drain it (see Warts on page 40).

· Make a paste from 5 teaspoons of turmeric rhizome powder and 5 teaspoons of water. Apply on the abscess.

· Rub a block of Pterocarpus santalinus (red sanderswood) against a rough stone to make a powder. Make a paste from 5 teaspoons of this powder with 5 teaspoons of water and apply on the affected area.

· Mix equal amounts of salt and water and pour on the abscess.

· Mix equal amounts of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and water. Mix this with an equal amount of lemon juice and apply on the abscess.

· Crush 10-20 fresh Mentha piperita or M. cordifolia opiz (mint) leaves and apply on top of the abscess as a poultice.

· Boil 1 part of young, chopped leaves of Spondias pinnate with 2 parts of clean water. Boil for 1015 minutes. Use the decoction to wash the abscess.

Treating castration wounds

The practice of castration is very old. Castration checks unwanted breeding, prepares young male animals for draft work, fattens males for good meat production and makes the animal docile. Farmers castrate their animals using various methods. In the Philippines and in Sri Lanka, some farmers use a sterilized blade and two long forceps.

Treating castration wounds

Antiseptics to prevent infection

After castration, apply any of the following remedies:

· Wash the wound with water boiled with guava leaves that has been allowed to cool. Do this for 3 consecutive days. (Philippines. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

· Chop and pound 1 to 3 mature, fresh banana leaves (depending on how big the wound is). Extract the latex by straining the chopped leaves through a clean cloth or gauze. Apply latex on the wound after the animal's wash in the early morning and the evening. Do this every day until the wound heals. (Philippines. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

· Apply 2 handfuls of hot, cooked rice to the wound. This will stop bleeding. (Philippines. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Mix 1 part brown sugar and 1 part coconut oil and apply on the wound. (Cambodia. 1, 2)

· Mix 1 part lime (calcium hydroxide) powder and 1 part brown sugar and apply to the wound. (Cambodia. 1, 2)

If swelling occurs

· Splash 2-3 cups clean, cold water on the swollen part 23 times a day. (India. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Pound dry turmeric (Curcuma domestica) rhizome with water to make a paste. Apply on the wound till the wound heals. (India, Philippines. 1, 2)

· Crush 5-10 comfrey (Symphytum officinale) leaves. Apply to the wound. (Philippines. 1, 2, 3, 4)

· Boil a handful of neem or guava leaves in 1 liter of water for about 15 minutes. Let cool down and sprinkle on and around the wound. (India, Philippines. 1, 2, 3, 4)

Glossary of english and botanical names

This glossary lists plants mentioned in the manuals that are known widely by their common English name. Further information on each plant and a full list of other plants mentioned in the manuals can be found in the Glossary of medicinal plants, page 49.

avocado
Persea americana

banana
Musa sp.

barley
Hordeum sativum

betel
Piper betle

camphor
Cinnamomum camphora

cassava
Manihot esculenta

castor
Ricinus communis

chickpea
Cicer arietinum

chilli
Capsicum annum

coconut
Cocos nucifera

cotton
Gossypium sp.

cowpea
Vigna sinensis or Vigna unguiculata

cumin
Cuminum cyminum

fennel
Foeniculum vulgare

fenugreek
Trigonella foenum-graecum

finger millet
Eleusine coracana

garlic
Allium sativum

ginger
Zingiber officinale

greengram
Phaseolus aureus

groundnut (peanut)
Arachis hypogaea

guava
Psidium gunjava

hemp
Cannabis sativa

horsegram
Dolichos uniflorus

jackfruit
Artocarpus heterophyllus

lentil
Lens esculenta

linseed
Linum usitatissimum

maize
Zea mays

mango
Mangifera indica

millet
Pennisetum typhoideum

mungbean
Phaseolus radiatus

mustard
Brassica nigra

neem
Azadirachta indica

nipa
Nypa fructicans

nutmeg
Myristica fragrans

onion
Allium cepa

palmyra palm
Borassus flabellifer

papaya
Carica papaya

pepper
Piper nigrum

pigeonpea
Cajanus cajan

pineapple
Ananas sativus

pomegranate
Punica granatum

rice
Oryza sativa

ricebean
Phaseolus calcaratus

rosewood
Dalbergia nigra

rubber
Hevea brasiliensis

sandalwood
Santalum album

sesame
Sesamum indicum

sorghum
Sorghum vulgare

soybean
Glycine max

sunflower
Helianthus annus

sweet potato
Ipomoea batatas

tamarind
Tamarindus indica

tard
Colocasia esculenta

tea
Camellia sinensis

tobacco
Nicotiana tabacum

turmeric
Curcuma longa or
Curcuma domestica

water hyacinth
Eichhornia crassipes

watermelon
Citrullus lanatus

wheat
Triticum aestivum

Glossary of medicinal plants

This glossary lists all ethnoveterinary plants that are mentioned in the manuals. It does not include poisonous plants described in the section Poisoning in Ruminants.

The plants are ordered alphabetically by their botanical name. In addition to the botanical name, each entry provides the English name if known, the various plant Parts used and the known uses for each plant part mentioned in the manuals. The only exception is bamboo because it consists of several different genera and species. Therefore, it was not always possible to determine which genus or species was meant when farmers use "bamboo." Therefore, only the English name is given.

To make it easy for the reader to find the section in the manuals that corresponds to each use, the wording of the "known uses" closely follows or includes the headings of the chapter titles where the plants and treatments are mentioned.

In a few cases, a reference in [ ] is added after a specific plant part and known use. It refers to the publication which contains the scientific validation for the plant's efficacy in treating the problem in the livestock species in question (marked in the corresponding chapter and treatment with code No. 6). The complete citation of the reference appears in the section on References.

Abelmoschus esculentus
Ladyfinger, Okra

Parts used
Leaf, root and seed

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Abelmoschus esculentus

Abrus precatorius
Prayer beads

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Fowl pox

Booklet
Poultry

Abrus precatorius

Acacia arabica

Parts used

Bark
Leaf and pod
Whole plant

Usage
Vaginal bleeding (Pregnancy and birthing)
Feed
Fencing (Housing)

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants
Ruminants

Acacia arabica

Acacia catechu
Catachu

Parts used
Sap

Usage
Wounds and diarrhea

Booklet
Ruminants

Acacia concinna

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Bloat

Booklet
Ruminants

Acacia farnesiana

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Fencing (Housing)

Booklet
Ruminants

Acacia insuavis

Parts used
Branch

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Poultry

Acacia rugata

Parts used
Pod

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Swine

Acacia spp.

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Fencing (Housing)

Booklet
Poultry

Acorus calamus

Parts used
Root

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants

Acorus calamus

Actinopetris fennis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Bleeding

Booklet
Ruminants

Adhatoda vasica

Parts used
Leaves, rhizome

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Aegale marmelos
Indian Bael

Parts used
Bark, flower, fruit, leaf, root, stem
Fruit

Usage
Dehydration
Diarrhea

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants

Aegale marmelos

Albizzia myriophylla

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet Swine

Allium cepa
Onion

Parts used
Bulb

Usage
Coughs and colds, fungus

Booklet
Poultry

Allium cepa

Allium sativum
Garlic

Parts used
Bulb

Usage
After birth, coughs and colds, newborn's navel, wounds
Retained placenta (Breeding)
Appetizer, coughs and colds, feed, fungus, wounds
Diarrhea
Intestinal worms
Warts (Surgery)

Booklet [Reference]
Ruminants
Swine
Poultry
Poultry[Rao et al. 1983]
Poultry [Yebron 1994]
General information

Allium sativum

Aloe vera
Aloe

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Constipation, eye disease, pregnancy and birthing difficulties, wounds
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants
Poultry

Aloe vera

Alpinia galanga
Greater galangal

Parts used
Rhizome

Usage
Appetizer, coughs and colds, fungus

Booklet
Ruminants

Alpinia galanga

Alstonia scholaris

Parts used
Bark, leaf and stem

Usage
Appetizer

Booklet
Swine

Alstonia scholaris

Amaranthus gracilis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Care during pregnancy (Breeding), constipation

Booklet
Swine

Amaranthus spinosus

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Care during pregnancy (Breeding), constipation

Booklet
Swine

Amaranthus spinosus

Ananas sativus
Pineapple

Parts used
Fruit wastes

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Ananas sativus

Andrographis paniculata
Bitters

Parts used
Stem
Juice
Whole plant

Usage
Diarrhea
Newcastle disease (Infectious diseases)
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Poultry
Poultry
Poultry

Andrographis paniculata

Andropogon annulatus
Marvel grass

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Andropogon citrates
See Cymbopogon citratus

Annona muricata
Sour sop

Parts used
Seed
Leaves

Usage
Lice
Foot rot, wound.

Booklet
Swine
Ruminants

Annona muricata

Annona reticulata

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Lice

Booklet
Swine

Annona squamosa
Sugar apple, custard apple, sweet sop

Parts used
Fruit
Leaf
Seed

Usage
Wounds
Bleeding, foot rot, wounds
Eye, disease, internal parasites
Lice, scabies
Tick and lice
Wounds

Booklet
Poultly
Ruminants
Swine
Swine
Poultry, ruminants
Poultry

Annona squamosa

Arachis hypogaea
Ground nut, peanut

Parts used
Seed

Usage
After birth
Feed
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants
Poultry, ruminants and swine
Ruminants

Arachis hypogaea

Areca catechu
Betel nut

Part used
Nut

Usage
Internal parasites
Intestinal worms
Liverflukes

Booklet
Ruminants, swine
Poultry
Ruminants

Areca catechu

Aristolochia bracteata
Worm killer

Parts used
Leaf

Usage

Constipation, internal parasites

Booklet
Ruminants

Artemisia vulgaris

Parts used
Leaf
Root and stem

Usage
Internal parasites, scabies
Scabies

Booklet
Swine
Swine

Artemisia vulgaris

Artocarpus heterophyllus
Jack fruit

Parts used
Leaf and fruit

Usage
After birth, feed, wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Azadirachta indica
Neem tree

Parts used
Bark
Leaf
Seed
Whole plant

Usage
Diarrhea, ticks and lice, wounds
Abscesses (Surgery), castration wound
Bleeding, feed, fever, foot rot, lice, udder infection, wounds
Wounds
Ticks
Insect repellent (Housing)

Booklet
Poultry
General information
Ruminants
Swine
Ruminants
Ruminants

Azadirachta indica

Azima tetracantha

Parts used
Root or leaf

Usage

Diarrhea

Booklet
Poultry

Bamboo (Bambusa sp. and other genera)

Parts used
Leaf, shoot
Stem

Usage
Retained placenta (Pregnancy and birthing), feed (After birth)
Housing

Booklet
Ruminants
Poultry, ruminants, swine

Bamboo

Barleria lupulina
Mahua

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Snake bite

Booklet
Ruminants

Bassia latifolia
Indian butter tree

Parts used
Flower

Usage
Feed (After birth)

Booklet
Ruminants

Berberis aristata

Parts used
Leaf, stem

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants

Bixa orellana

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Intestinal worms

Booklet
Poultry

Bixa orellana

Blumea balsamifera

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Fever

Booklet
Swine

Blumea balsamifera

Boerhaavia diffusa

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Borassus flabellifer
Palmyra tree

Parts used
Flower
Leaf, wood

Usage
Bleeding
Housing

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants, swine

Brassica integrifolia

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Brassica nigra or juncea
Mustard

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Appetizer
Feed, ticks and lice
Sprains

Booklet
Swine
Poultry
Ruminants

Breynia patens

Parts used
Bark, leaf

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Cajanus cajan
Pigeon pea

Parts used
Leaf and pod

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants and swine

Cajanus cajan

Calendula officinalis
Calendula

Parts used
Flower, leaf and petal

Usage
Warts (Surgery)

Booklet
General information

Camellia sinensis
Tea

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Bleeding, dehydration, diarrhea, poisoning
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants
Swine

Camellia sinensis

Cannabis sativa
Hemp

Parts used
Stalk

Usage
Housing

Booklet
Ruminants

Cannabis sativa

Capsicum annum or frutescens
Chilli

Parts used
Fruit, seed

Usage
Appetizer
Fowl pox

Booklet
Ruminants, poultry
Poultry

Capsicum annum or frutescens

Careya sphaerica

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Dehydration, wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Carica papaya
Papaya

Parts used
Fruit
Leaf
Latex of fruit or stem
Seed
Latex of trunk, fruit and leaf

Usage
Constipation
Intestinal worms
After birth
Intestinal worms
Internal parasites
Warts (Surgery)

Booklet
Swine
Poultry
Ruminants
Poultry [Mursof, 1990]
Ruminants
General information

Carica papaya

Cassia alata
Ringworm bush

Parts used
Leaf
Stem, bark, fruit

Usage
Scabies
Fungus infection
Scabies

Booklet
Swine, ruminants
Ruminants
Swine

Cassia alata

Cassia siamea

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Appetizer

Booklet
Ruminants

Cassia siamea

Cassia tora

Parts used Leaf, seed

Usage
Fungus

Booklet
Ruminants

Centrosema spp.

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Chromolaena odorata

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Swine

Chrysanthemum indicum
Chrysanthemum

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Scabies

Booklet
Swine

Chrysanthemum indicum

Chrysophyllum cainito
Star apple

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Diarrhea, foot rot, internal parasites, wounds
Diarrhea

Booklet
Ruminants
Swine

Chrysophyllum cainito

Cicer arietinum
Chick pea

Parts used
Seed hulls

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Cicer arietinum

Cinnamomum camphora
Camphor

Parts used
Wood

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Cinnamomum camphora

Cissampelos pareira
Velvet leaf

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Fractures (Surgery)

Booklet
General information

Citrullus lanatus
Watermelon

Parts used
Rind of fruit

Usage
Water source (Feeding)

Booklet
Swine

Citrullus lanatus

Citrus acida

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Ticks and lice

Booklet
Poultry

Citrus bergamia
Lemon

Parts used Fruit

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Citrus madurensis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Fever

Booklet
Swine

Citrus medica
Citron tree

Citrus medica

Coccinia grandis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants

Cocos nucifera
Coconut

Cocos nucifera

Colocasia esculenta
Taro

Colocasia esculenta

Couroupita guianensis
Cannon-ball tree

Parts used
Fruit

Usage
To stimulate heat

Booklet
Ruminants

Crataeva nurvala

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Crotolaria juncea
Sun hemp

Parts used
Fresh leaves

Usage
Feed (After birth)

Booklet
Ruminants

Crotolaria juncea

Cuminum cyminum
Cumin

Parts used
Seed (dried)

Usage
After birth, diarrhea

Booklet
Ruminants

Curcuma longa or domestica
Turmeric

Curcuma longa or domestica

Cymbopogon citratus
Lemon grass

Cymbopogon citratus

Cynodon dactylon
Bermuda grass

Dalbergia nigra
Rosewood

Desmodium triflorum

Dioscorea alata
Yam

Parts used
Tuber

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Swine

Dioscorea alata

Dioscorea esculenta
Tugui

Parts used
Tuber

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Swine

Dioscorea esculenta

Diospyros ebenum

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Ticks and lice

Booklet
Poultry

Diospyros mollis

Dolichos uniflorus
Horsegram

Dolichos catjung
See Vigna unguiculata

Eichhornia crassipes
Water hyacinth

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Swine

Eleusine coracana
Finger millet

Parts used
Seed

Usage
After birth

Booklet
Ruminants

Embelia ribes

Parts used
Fruit

Usage
Bloat

Booklet
Ruminants

Erythrina indica

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Cough and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptus

Eugenia caryophyllus
Clove

Parts used
Root clove and bark

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Swine

Eugenia caryophyllus

Eugenia jambolana
Jambul or black plum

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Bleeding

Booklet
Ruminants

Eupatorium odoratum

Euphorbia hirta

Parts used
Latex from stem

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants

Euphorbia hirta

Euphorbia neriifolia
Common milk hedge

Parts used
Latex

Usage
Fractures and warts (Surgery)

Booklet
General information

Euphorbia neriifolia

Ferula assa-foetida
Asafoetida

Parts used
Resin

Usage
Bloat, after birth

Booklet
Ruminants

Ficus bengalensis
Banyan tree

Ficus hauili

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Ficus minahassae

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Udder infection

Booklet
Swine

Ficus racemosa

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Foeniculum vulgare
Fennel

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Appetizer, after birth

Booklet
Ruminants

Fumaria officinalis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Udder infection

Booklet
Ruminants

Gardenia gummifera

Parts used
Resin

Usage Bloat

Booklet
Ruminants

Gardenia jasminoides
Gardenia

Parts used
Stem

Usage
Fever

Booklet
Ruminants

Gardenia jasminoides

Gaultheria fragrantissima

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Gmelina arborea

Parts used Leaf

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Gmelina arborea

Gliricidia septum
Gliricidia

Gliricidia septum

Glycine max
Soy bean

Glycine max

Glycyrrhiza glabra
Liquorice

Gossypium sp.
Cotton

Gossypium sp.

Helianthus annus
Sunflower

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Poultry, ruminants

Helianthus annus

Heliotropium indicum
Indian heliotrope

Parts used
Mature leaf

Usage
Coughs and colds

Booklet [Reference] Poultry [Fernandez, 1990]

Heliotropium indicum

Hevea brasiliensis
Rubber

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Hevea brasiliensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Hibiscus

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Holarrhena antidysenterica

Parts used
Seed and bark

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Ruminants

Holarrhena antidysenterica

Hordeum sativum
Barley

Parts used
Grain

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Poultry

Hoya ovalifolia

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Hyoscyamus niger
Black or common henbane

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Hyoscyamus niger

Imperata cylindrica
Cogon grass

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Housing

Booklet
Ruminants, swine

Imperata cylindrica

Ipomea aquatica
Swamp cabbage, water spinach

Parts used
Leaf and stem

Usage
Care during pregnancy (Breeding)

Booklet
Swine

Ipomea aquatica

Ipomea batatas
Sweet potato

Parts used
Leaf
Leaf and stem
Root

Usage
Appetizer, constipation
Feed
Care during pregnancy (Breeding)
Feed

Booklet
Swine
Swine and poultry
Swine
Swine

Ipomea batatas

Jatropha curcas

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Bleeding

Booklet
Ruminants

Jatropha curcas

Jasminum sambac
Arabian jasmine

Parts used
Flower
Whole plant

Usage
Eye disease
Ticks and lice

Booklet
Ruminants
Poultry

Jasminum sambac

Lagerstroemia speciosa
Banaba

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Lansium domesticum

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Intestinal worms

Booklet
Poultry

Lansium domesticum

Launaea pinnatifida
Pathri grass

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Lawsonia inermis
Henna

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Constipation

Booklet
Ruminants

Lens esculenta
Lentil

Parts used
Husk

Usage
Decreased milk flow, feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Leucaena leucocephala

Parts used
Leaf
Seed

Usage
Feed
Internal parasites

Booklet
Ruminants, swine, poultry
Swine

Leucaena leucocephala

Leptadenia reticulata

Parts used
Bark
Leaf
Whole plant

Usage
Decreased milk flow
Decreased milk flow, feed (After birth)
Eye disease
Decreased milk flow, antiabortion, to stimulate heat

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants
Swine
Ruminants

Linum usitatissimum
Linseed

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed
Poisoning, constipation retained placenta

Booklet
Poultry
Ruminants

Litsea sabifera

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Udder infection

Booklet
Ruminants

Mangifera indica
Mango

Parts used
Bark
Peel, kernel, leaf, fruit pulp

Usage
Bleeding
Feed (After birth)

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants

Mangifera indica

Manihot esculenta
Cassava

Parts used
Leaf
Root

Usage
Feed (After birth)
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants, swine

Manihot esculenta

Marantha arudinacea
Arrowroot

Parts used
Root

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Swine

Melia azedarach
Persian lilac or common bead tree

Parts used
Leaves

Usage
Scabies

Booklet
Ruminants

Melia azedarach

Mentha arvensis
Japanese mint

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Mentha arvensis

Mentha cordifolia Opiz
Marsh mint

Parts used
Leaves

Usage
Abscesses (Surgery)

Booklet
General information

Mentha cordifolia Opiz

Mentha piperita
Pepper mint

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Abscesses (Surgery)
Sprains

Booklet
General information
Ruminants

Mimosa pudica
Sensitive plant Touch-me-not

Parts used
Bark
Leaf
Root

Usage
Sprains
Internal parasites
Sprains
Castration wounds pain (Surgery)

Booklet [Reference]
Swine
Ruminants
Swine [Tan 1981]
General information

Mimosa pudica

Mimusops elonga

Parts used
Seeds

Usage
Cough and colds

Booklet
Ruminants

Mitragyna speciosa

Parts used
Leaves

Usage
Dehydration

Booklet
Ruminants

Michelia champaca

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Momordica charantia
Bitter gourd

Parts used
Leaf
Fruit and root

Usage
Anemia
Internal parasites
Diarrhea

Booklet [Reference]
Swine [Micu and Mateo 1986]
Swine
Ruminants

Momordica charantia

Morinda citrifolia
Indian mulberry

Parts used
Fruit
Leaf

Usage
Internal parasites
Appetizer

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants

Morinda citrifolia

Moringa oleifera
Horseradish tree or drumstick

Parts used
Leaf
Stem bark
Seed

Usage
Anemia, feed
Wounds, cough and colds, after birth
Coughs and colds
Internal parasites

Booklet [Reference]
Swine [Micu and Mateo 1986]
Ruminants
Ruminants
Swine

Mucuna pruriens
Cow-witch

Parts used
Seed

Usage
To stimulate heat

Booklet
Ruminants

Murraya koenigii
Curry - leaf tree

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Appetizer

Booklet
Poultry

Musa sp.
Banana

Musa sp.

Myristica fragrans
Nutmeg

Parts used
Fruit

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Poultry

Myristica fragrans

Nephelium lappaceum
Rambutan

Parts used
Leaf, bark

Usage
Fever

Booklet
Ruminants

Nephelium lappaceum

Nicotiana tabacum
Tobacco

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Ticks and lice
Ticks, wounds
Udder infection

Booklet
Poultry
Ruminants
Swine

Nicotiana tabacum

Nigella sativa
Black cummin

Parts used
Seeds

Usage
Decreased milk flow
Retained placenta
(Pregnancy and birthing)

Booklet
Ruminants
Ruminants

Nypa fructicans
Nipa

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Housing

Booklet
Ruminants, swine

Ochna serrulata

Parts used
Root

Usage
Snake bite

Booklet
Ruminants

Ocimum sanctum
Holy basil

Ocimum sanctum

Ocimum basilicum
Sweet basil

Ocimum basilicum

Odina wodier
Besharam

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Abscesses (Surgery)

Booklet
General information

Orthosiphon spicata

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Oryza sativa
Rice

Oryza sativa

Panicum isachne

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Papaver somniferum
Poppy

Parts used
Fruit gum

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Swine

Papaver somniferum

Pathos secundes

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Sprains

Booklet
Ruminants

Pavetta indica

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Pedalium maurex

Pennisetum typhoideum
Millet

Persea americana
Avocado

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Wounds, foot rot

Booklet
Ruminants

Persea americana

Peucadenum graveolens

Phaseolus aureus
Green gram

Parts used
Bean

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Poultry

Phaseolus calcaratus
Rice bean

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants

Phaseolus mungo
Black gram

Parts used
Bean

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Poultry

Phaseolus mungo

Phaseolus radiatus
Mung bean

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants, swine, poultry

Phyllanthus emblica

Picrorrhiza kurrooa

Piper betle
Betel pepper

Piper betle

Piper nigrum
Black pepper

Piper nigrum

Plumbago zeylanica
Ceylon leadwort

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Bleeding

Booklet
Ruminants

Plumeria acuminata
Temple flower

Parts used
Leaf, bark

Usage
Internal parasites

Booklet
Swine

Pongomia glabra

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Premna odorata
Alagau

Premna odorata

Psidium guajava
Guava

Psidium guajava

Pterocarpus macrocarpus

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Foot rot,
wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Pterocarpus santalinus
Red Sanderswood

Punica granatum
Pomegranate

Punica granatum

Quisqualis indica

Parts used
Leaf and seed

Usage
Intestinal worms

Booklet
Poultry

Quisqualis indica

Ricinus communis
Castor

Ricinus communis

Saccharum officinarum
Sugar cane

Saccharum officinarum

Sansevieria sp.

Parts used
Root

Usage
Snake bite

Booklet
Ruminants

Santalum album
Sandalwood

Parts used
Wood

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Swine

Sapindus rarak

Parts used
Fruit

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Ruminants

Saraca indica
Ashoka tree

Sauropus androgynus
Katuk

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
After birth

Booklet
Ruminants

Semen nelumbinis
Lotus

Sesamum indicum
Sesame

Sesamum indicum

Sesbania aegyptiaca

Parts used
Seed and bark

Usage
Diarrhea

Booklet
Poultry

Sesbania grandiflora
Katurai

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Dehydration, wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Sida cordiofolia
Country mallow

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
To stimulate heat

Booklet
Ruminants

Sorghum vulgare
Sorghum

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed, after birth

Booklet
Ruminants

Spondias pinnata or Spondias mangifera
Indian wild mango

Spondias pinnata or Spondias mangifera

Stachyta jamaicensis

Parts used
Leaf

Usage
Udder infection

Booklet
Swine

Sterculia foetida
Wild almond

Parts used
Pod

Usage
Eye disease

Booklet
Swine

Swertia chirata

Symphytum officinale
Comfrey

Symphytum officinale

Tamarindus indica
Tamarind

Tamarindus indica

Tectona grandis Teak

Terminalia arjuna

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Bleeding

Booklet
Ruminants

Terminalia belerica

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Terminalia chebula

Terminalia chebula

Thunbergia laurifolia

Parts used
Root

Usage
Poisoning

Booklet
Ruminants

Tinospora spp.

Trachyspermum ami
Bishop's weed

Tribulus terrestis

Parts used
Whole plant

Usage
Difficulty in urinating

Booklet
Ruminants

Trigonella foenum-graecum
Fenugreek

Triticum aestivum
Wheat

Veronica anthelmintica

Vigna sinensis or unguiculata
Cowpea

Parts used
Seed

Usage
Feed

Booklet
Ruminants, poultry

Vigna sinensis or unguiculata

Vitex negundo
Five-leaved chastetree

Vitex negundo

Withania somnifera
Winter cherry

Parts used
Root

Usage
Decreased milk flow

Booklet
Ruminants

Xylia kerii

Parts used
Bark

Usage
Dehydration, wounds

Booklet
Ruminants

Zea mays
Maize

Zea mays

Zingiber cassumunar
Common ginger

Zingiber officinale
Ginger

Zingiber officinale

Zingiber zerumbet

Ethnoveterinary question list

If you work on livestock production in villages, it is important to know and understand local animal health care practices. Here is a list of questions to ask livestock raisers when recording information on ethnoveterinary medicine. The questions are for guidance only; they should be adapted to local conditions and the situation of each livestock raiser.

Background information

· Who in the household is responsible for, manages, or treats sick animals?

· What are the local seasons of the year? How do they affect livestock diseases?

· What species of livestock are kept? What breed, age or other categories are considered relevant for animal health?

Disease names

· Elicit the names of all livestock diseases in the area, by species, seasons and other locally relevant variables.

· Cross-check all terms for duplications, overlaps, confusions and omissions.

· Decide which diseases warrant further investigation in the question list below.

The question list

Ask these questions for each disease you have identified above.

1. What species, breeds, ages and sexes of animals are affected by this disease?

2. Is there seasonality or other timing to the appearance of the disease?

3. Does it usually affect one animal or a group of animals at the same time? Does it spread from animal to animal (i.e., is it contagious or infectious)?

4. What causes the disease natural/physical causes, supernatural/non-physical causes, or both? Describe.

5. Are there ways to prevent/avoid this disease? If so, what are they?

6. Describe the main symptoms, if possible, in order of progression and timing, i.e., what is the first symptom seen and when? What is the second symptom seen and when? etc. Also, what is the symptom, if any, that makes you decide it is this specific disease?

7. Are traditional treatments available? What are they? Where/how are they obtained? What happens when they are used? (Please be as specific as possible.)

8. Are modern treatments available? What are they? Where/how are they obtained? What happens when they are used? (Please be as specific as possible.)

9. What usually happens if the animal is not treated?

10. When did you last have (or for areas with few livestock per household, hear of) an animal with this disease? What did you do and what happened to the animal?

Source: Based on Grandin and Young (forthcoming).

Glossary of technical terms

These manuals avoid using technical terms if at all possible. Sometimes, however, using a technical word is unavoidable. This glossary contains such words and other terms found in books on veterinary medicine.

A

Abortifacient. Causes abortion or miscarriage.

Abscess. A collection of pus in the tissue.

Acaricide. Chemical used for tick (external parasite) control.

Active principle. Ingredient or the chemical component of a crude drug which has a therapeutic effect.

Acute. Condition which is critical, sudden and of short duration.

After birth. Placenta and other membranes expelled after birth.

Allergen. Substance capable of inducing an allergic response.

Allergy. Hypersensitivity of the body cells to specific substances such as antigens and allergens, resulting in various types of reactions.

Alterative. A substance which alters a condition by a gradual change toward restoration of health.

Analgesic. Pain-reliever or pain-killer.

Anaphrodisiac. A drug that represses sexual desire.

Anemia. Number of red blood cells and quantity of hemoglobin in blood reduced below normal.

Anesthetic. An agent which causes total or partial loss of sensation.

Anhidrotic. An agent that suppresses perspiration.

Anodyne. A soothing agent which eases pain.

Anthelmintic. An agent that removes intestinal worms from the host animal.

Antibiotic. A chemical substance produced by a microorganism that has the capacity to kill or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms.

Antibody. Immunoglobulin molecule that is found normally in the body but is elicited after contact with an antigen.

Anticoagulant. Agent preventing or retarding blood clotting.

Anticolic. Agent that relieves abdominal pain by expelling gas from the stomach and intestines.

Antidote. A treatment which counteracts or destroys the effect of poisons or other medicines.

Antidyspeptic. Acts against nausea due to indigestion.

Antiemetic. An agent that relieves vomiting.

Antigen. A substance capable of inducing an immune response.

Antiherpetic. Drug for skin inflammations.

Antipyretic. Substance that lowers body temperature to the normal level; used against fever.

Antirheumatic. Medicine for rheumatism.

Antiseptic. An agent for destroying or inhibiting diseasecausing bacteria.

Antisialic. Checking the flow of saliva.

Antispasmodic. Prevents or relieves muscular spasms or cramps.

Antitussive. An agent that relieves coughing.

Aphrodisiac. A drug that arouses sexual desire.

Aperient. A gentle purgative.

Aromatic. Emits fragrant odor; used to make medicinal preparations more palatable.

Ascariasis. Infestation by the intestinal parasite Ascaris.

Ascarid. A roundworm (nematode parasite) found in the intestine of pigs, birds, ruminants, horses and humans.

Astringent. Shrinks tissues and prevents secretion of fluids from wounds.

B

Bacteria. Microscopic organisms.

Balm. A soothing or healing medicine.

Balsam. A semifluid, resinous vegetable juice.

Balsamic. Healing or soothing agent.

Bladder. The organ which is reservoir for urine, or gall, in body.

Boil. Infected, painful, hard swelling of the skin.

C

Carminative. An agent that relieves flatulence.

Catarrh. Inflammation of nose and mucous membranes.

Cathartic. Causes cleansing of the bowels.

Chronic. Condition which is recurring and of long duration.

Colic. Gas pain.

Collyrium. An eyewash or lotion for the eyes.

Colostrum. Viscid yellow milk, high in protein and micro-nutrients, produced by mothers after birth.

Compress. A wet, folded cloth soaked in a solution and applied firmly to a part of the body.

Congestion. Abnormal accumulation of blood in a part.

Concoction. A preparation from crude materials, made by combining different ingredients.

Constipation. Infrequent or difficult bowel movement with hard stools caused by functional or organic disorders or improper diet.

Contagious. Diseases which are readily passed on to others.

Contamination. The soiling or making inferior by contact, as by introduction of organisms into a wound.

Contusion. Injury to tissues caused by blunt force which did not disrupt or lacerate the skin.

Convulsion. A violent involuntary contraction of a muscle or muscles.

Costive. An agent that produces constipation.

D

Decoctions. Solutions representing the water-soluble constituents of plant drugs prepared by boiling the drug in water.

Decongestant. An agent that reduces congestion or swelling.

Demulcent. A soothing medicine or application.

Depressant. Agent that reduces functional activity.

Depurative. Purifying agent; normally applied to bloodpurifiers.

Dermatitis. Inflammation of the skin.

Detergent. Cleansing agent.

Diagnosis. The determination of the nature of a case of disease. Includes: (1) the name, (2) the cause and (3) the prognosis.

Diaphoretic. An agent that promotes profuse perspiration.

Diarrhea. Abnormal frequency and fluidity of stool discharges.

Digestant. Aids or promotes digestion.

Disease. Any departure from a state of health.

Diuretic. A drug or preparation that promotes urine production.

Dosage. The determination and regulation of the size, frequency and number of doses.

Dose. The quantity of a specified medication to be administered at one time that cures or mitigates illness.

Drench. Giving medicines in liquid form by mouth and forcing the animal to drink.

Dysentery. Inflammation of the large intestines with evacuation of liquid and bloody stool and painful straining.

Dyspepsia. Indigestion characterized by nausea.

Dysuria. Difficult discharge of urine.

E

Eczema. Inflammatory skin disease characterized by redness, itching and formation of scales and crusts.

Edema. Abnormal accumulation of fluids in the tissues.

Emetic. Causes vomiting

Emollient. An agent that softens or soothes the skin, or soothes an irritated internal surface.

Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain.

Enema. Any liquid preparation introduced into the rectum.

Enteritis. Inflammation of the intestines.

Epidemic. A sudden outbreak of disease in a relatively small area.

Estrus. Heat, the condition of being receptive to breeding.

Etiology. The study or theory of the cause(s) of any disease; the sum of knowledge regarding causes.

Eupeptic. Promotes good digestion.

Expectorant. Promotes ejection of fluid from the lungs and trachea.

F

Febrifuge. A remedy for fever.

Fever. Increase in the body temperature; an abnormally high body temperature.

Flatulence. Gas formation in the alimentary canal.

Fluid extract. Liquid preparation of vegetable drug containing alcohol as a solvent or as a preservative or both.

Fomentation. Application of warm, moist substances such as wet cloth to ease pain and inflammation.

Fracture. Breaking of a bone.

G

Galactagogue. An agent that promotes milk flow.

Gastroenteritis. Inflammation of the stomach and intestines characterized by pain, nausea and disease germs.

Germicide. Destroy disease germs.

Gestation. Period of pregnancy term of life of offspring within womb.

H

Health. A normal condition of body and mind.

Hematoma. A swelling filled with blood.

Hemorrhage. Excessive bleeding.

Hemorrhoid. Painful swelling formed by dilation of a vein in the anus; usually accompanied by bleeding and constipation; piles.

Hygiene. The science of health and its preservation.

Hypnotic. Induces sleep.

I

Immune. Resistant to a disease due to the formation of antibodies.

Immunity. The body is defense against disease; can be passed on to offspring through colostrum, or through exposure and naturally developed defenses (vaccinations/inoculations).

Infectious. Disease conditions which can be passed on to others (see Contagious).

Inflammation. The reaction of living tissues to injury infection or irritation; characterized by pain swelling, redness and heat.

Infusion. Herbal remedy preparation which involves adding hot or cold water to plant part(s) and allowing to stand (with cover), usually for about 15 minutes; an infusion can be either hot or cold.

Internal medicine. Branch of medicine not involving surgery.

Invigorant. Strengthening, energy-giving agent.

L

Larva. An independent, immature stage in the life cycle of an animal or insect in which it is unlike the parent and must undergo changes in form and size to reach the adult stage.

Laxative. Encourages defecation.

Lesions. Alterations of skin due to skin disease.

Liniment. A medicated liquid, usually containing alcohol, camphor and an oil, applied to the skin to relieve pain or stiffness.

M

Macerate. Cold water extract of a plant or crude drug, also, to soften or separate by soaking.

Massage. Rubbing or kneading the muscles.

Mastitis. Inflammation of the udder due to infection.

Medicine. (1) any drug or remedy (2) the art or science of healing diseases—the diagnosis and treatment of a case of disease.

Milk fever. Critical condition after calving when cow cannot stand and may quickly die unless given calcium therapy.

Mixture. A combination of different elements or ingredients.

N

Narcotic. A drug, which, in moderate doses, alleviates pain, reduces sensibility, produces sleep; in large amounts, induces stupor, coma or convulsions.

Nausea. Upset stomach, with the inclination to vomit.

Nervine. Soothing to the nerves; provides nervous relaxation.

Nutrient. Nourishing substance.

O

Obstuent. Any agent that causes obstruction (e.g., in the wind pipe or intestine).

Ointment. Combination of juice or plant part with oil (e.g., coconut oil) and starch.

P

Pandemic. An outbreak of disease occurring over a very wide area, affecting a large percentage of the population.

Paralysis. Inability to move a muscle or group of muscles, often coupled with loss of sensation in the affected area.

Parasites. Any organisms which have a harmful effect or cause a disease condition; usually refers to worms, ticks, fleas' mites, lice, leeches, etc.

Parturient. Giving birth or pertaining to birth.

Parturition. The act of giving birth; calving.

Pathology. The science that deals with the study of disease.

Pelvic. The area around the anus and the hips.

Pharmacognosy. The study of the biology, chemistry and pharmacology of plant drugs and species.

Pharmacology. The study of the action of chemicals and drugs in the body.

Placenta. The sac inside which the fetus grows and is attached to the mother's womb through which it is nourished.

Plaster. A mixture of materials that hardens; used for immobilizing body parts.

Preventive medicine. Branch of study and practice which aims at prevention of disease.

Poison. A substance that, in relatively small amounts, may cause structural damage or functional disturbance.

Post partum. After a birth.

Poultice. A soft, usually heated preparation spread on a cloth and applied to a sore or inflammation.

Prognosis. A forecast as to the probable result of a case of disease; the prospect as to recovery from a disease afforded by the nature and symptoms of the case; may be: (1) favorable, (2) guarded, (3) unfavorable.

Prolapsed rectum. The lower portion of the intestinal tract comes out of the anus.

Prolapsed uterus. The uterus descends into the vagina and may be seen at the vaginal opening.

Prophylactic. Preventing against disease.

Pulmonary. Pertaining to the lungs.

Purgative. Causing evacuation from the intestines.

R

Refrigerant. Relieving fever and thirst. Rejuvenator. Causes renewed vitality. Repellent. An agent that repels or drives off other organisms.

Resolvent. An agent that promotes the subsidence of an inflammation or the softening and disappearance of a swelling.

Restorative. Aids in regaining normal vigor.

Retained placenta. A disease condition in which the placenta is not expelled after calving, requiring treatment.

Revulsive. Diverts disease from one part of the body to another.

Rinse. To wash out with water.

Rubefacient. An external skin application causing redness of the skin.

Ruminant. An animal that has a stomach with four complete cavities and regurgitates undigested food from the rumen and masticates it when at rest (e.g., cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat).

S

Secretion. The liquid products of glands.

Sedative. An agent that calms the nerves.

Sign. Any objective evidence of a disease.

Soak. To thoroughly wet or saturate with liquid.

Soporific. An agent that induces sleep.

Specific agent. Remedy that has a special effect on a particular disease.

Sporadic. An outbreak of disease in a single or scattered location.

Sprain. A violent and sudden twist of a joint.

Starchy water. Water full of starch.

Steam. The vapor which rises from boiling water

Sterile. Free from living germs or bacteria.

Stimulant. Increases or hastens body activity.

Stomachic. Stimulates activity of the stomach.

Stomatitis. Inflammation of the mouth.

Styptic. Stops bleeding with an astringent.

Sudorific. An agent that causes sweating.

Symptom. Any functional evidence of disease or of a patient's condition.

Syndrome. The aggregate of symptoms associated with a particular disease.

T

Therapeutics. Branch of medicine associated with the use of remedies and the treatment of diseases.

Tincture. Alcoholic extract of a plant drug.

Tonic. Produces healthy muscular condition and reaction.

Treatment. Application of therapeutic measures.

U

Ulcer. A superficial inflammation or sore of the skin or mucus membrane discharging pus.

V

Vagina. The portion of the female reproductive tract through which the baby animal must pass. It is separated from the uterus by the cervix.

Vermicide. An agent lethal to worms or intestinal animal parasites.

Vermifuge. An agent that expels the worms or intestinal animal parasites; anthelmintic.

Vesicant. An agent that produces blisters.

Virus. A minute organism which causes disease.

Vulnerably. An agent that promotes the healing of wounds.

Vulva. The opening below a female animal's tailhead to which the urinary and reproductive tracts are attached, which swells at time of estrus and more so at calving time.

Sources

Agravante, et al. (1985)
Blood and Studdert (1988)
Co (1989)
GuzmanLadion (1985)
Jensen and Kaeberle (1975)
Lewis (1977)
Nadkarni (1992)
Padua, et al. (1978)

Participants' profile

Nita Cueva-Abena
Intemational Institute of
Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)
Silang, Cavite, Philippines
Tel (0969) 9451
Fax 9937

Dr. Abena has a B. S. degree from Aquinas University and a D.V.M. degree from the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Her experience includes clinical practice with food and companion animals, rural development and extension work and consultancies for commercial swine farms. Currently, she is IlRR's swine production coordinator. Among other things, she conducts training on swine production and basic animal health care for farmers. She has done research on ethnoveterinary practices in Cavite province, Philippines, and has used herbal remedies during her clinical work. Dr. Abena is a Filipina.

Jayvir V. Anjaria
C/5, Sonarika Apt.
Nr. Panjarapole, Atira Road
Ahmedabad 380 015, India
Tel 091-079 - 404910
Fax c/o 091-079 - 425332

An Indian national, Dr. Jayvir V. Anjaria is a retired professor of pharmacology and, currently, a consultant to the pharmaceuticals and herbal drug industry. His experience includes 11 years of field work in veterinary medicine, 21 years in teaching, research and administration and 10 years as an international consultant. Dr. Anjaria has travelled to various countries, including the USA, UK, France and Canada. He has received four National Awards in India for his efforts in indigenous drug research.

Luka Choemuen
115 M.2 T. Rimkok A. Muang
Chiangrai 57100
Thailand
Tel (053) 713-169
Fax (053) 713-169

Mr. Choemuen is the agricultural manager of the Development and Education Project for Akha (a hill tribe in Thailand). He graduated from Chiangrai Teachers' College with a bachelor's degree in agriculture and education. He has served as a teacher, trainer and coordinator for animal raising, farming, irrigation and the administration of a revolving credit fund. He is a Thai citizen.

Baldwin L. Dy
Philippine Animal Health Center
Bureau of Animal Industry
BAI CPD, Visayas Avenue
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
Tel/Fax 99-21-77

Dr. Dy is a Filipino veterinarian at the Epidemiology Section of the Philippine Animal Health Center, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture. He has been involved in ethnoveterinary documentation, research and development, application, practice and extension for the past eight years. He is currently involved in animal disease investigations and surveillance in the Philippines.

Mila Gracia A. Ejercito
1070 M. Ocampo St.
Bo. Obrero, Tondo
Manila, Philippines
Tel 35-32-60
Fax 818-76-18; 587-919

Dr. Ejercito is a Filipino veterinarian with the Philippine program of Heifer Project International. She provides farmerlevel training to grass-root organizations nationwide on proper livestock production management.

Tomas J. Fernandez, Jr.
Department of Animal Science and
Veterinary Medicine
ViSCA, Baybay, Leyte 6521A
Philippines

Dr. Fernandez, Jr. is the Head of the College of Veterinary Medicine at the Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines. He has been doing research on ethnoveterinary medicine for 10 years, studying the toxicity and efficacy of herbal remedies. Dr. Fernandez earned his D.V.M and M.S. degrees at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City and his Ph.D. at the Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine at the Royal Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland. Dr. Fernandez is a Filipino.

Nitya Sambamurti Ghotge
ANTHRA
10, Lantana Gardens N.D.A. Road
Bavahan, Poona 411021, India
Tel 0212-369065

Dr. Ghotge received her degree in veterinary sciences and animal husbandry from the College of Veterinary Sciences, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India, and her master's degree in veterinary surgery from Bombay Veterinary College, India. She has worked extensively as a veterinary researcher and consultant to NGOs, animal welfare organizations, zoological parks and research organizations. She has developed educational and training materials for rural and urban animal owners and health workers and has conducted training programs in urban and rural areas, especially directed towards rural women. She is interested in alternative systems of animal medicine and care and has collected and documented indigenous veterinary practices in different parts of Western India. Dr. Ghotge has also worked as a small-animal practitioner and surgeon for several years. She is an Indian citizen.

Vinai Klunsorn
Northern Agriculture Development Center (NADC) 65
Sutape, Amphur Muang
Chiangmai, Thailand
Tel (053) 279080, 276490

Mr. Klunsorn is the agricultural officer of NADC. He finished high vocational level in animal science from Maejo Agricultural College, Chiangmai, Thailand in 1970. He formerly raised fish and swine as a private business. He was also the agricultural extension worker in the highland area around Chiangmai, Thailand, for a UNDP Project. One of his major current responsibilities is to administer a revolving fund for animal raising for rural people. Mr. Klunsorn is a Thai citizen.

S. Kumaraswamy
Agroskills Consultancy
7711, Isipatana Mawata
Colombo 5, Sri Lanka
Tel (01) 508129, 508130
Fax (01) 584124

Dr. Kumaraswamy, a Sri Lankan, is a veterinarian. He has 15 years experience in clinical practice and he has done research in animal reproduction for 10 years. He was also deputy director of the Department of Animal Production, Sri Lanka, provincial director of the Department of Animal Production and advisor to the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka. He is presently a director and consultant of Agroskills Consultancy and a freelance consultant.

Chheng Heat Leao
2440 E. Van Owen Avenue
Orange, CA 92667, USA
Tel Work/Daytime (714) 5711980
Home/Nighttime (714) 633-6416
Fax (714) 571 -1974

Dr. Leao, a Cambodian, is a veterinarian trained in animal production. He was the provincial chief of the Veterinary Department in Cambodia for 19 years. He worked closely with Cambodian farmers in animal production and the eradication of contagious animal diseases. Dr. Leao also taught veterinary students at the universities in Cambodia. He now lives in California. Since 1985 he has been providing teaching materials in Khmer for his young colleagues in Cambodia through the American Friends' Service Committee, for which he is a veterinary consultant.

Carmencita Directo-Mateo
Institute of Animal Science
University of the Philippines at Los Ba�os
College, Laguna, Philippines
Tel 1092551
Fax 109-2547

Dr. Mateo is a Filipino veterinarian and animal nutritionist with D.V.M., M.Sc. and Ph.D degrees. She has been involved in university research on the utilization of medicinal plants for animal health care in the Philippines. She has published on this topic and participated in workshops, conferences and seminars addressing ethnoveterinary concerns.

Evelyn Mathias
Intemational Institute of
Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)
Silang, Cavite 4118
Philippines
Tel 0969-9451
Fax 0969 9937

Dr. Mathias holds a Dr. med. vet. degree (equivalent to Ph.D.) in veterinary medicine and a D.V.M. degree, both from the University of Giessen in her native Germany and an M.S. in international development from Iowa State University, USA. She has performed field research on goats' feeding behavior in Tunisia, the reproductive physiology of swamp buffaloes in Thailand and ethnoveterinary medicine in Indonesia. She has conducted extensive literature reviews of ethnoveterinary medicine and indigenous tree management worldwide. From 1981 to 1985, she was a visiting lecturer at Bogor Agricultural University in Indonesia. From 1988 to 1992, she was a research associate with the Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) at Iowa State University. Currently, she is the coordinator of the Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge in Asia at IIRR. There, she works on the retrieval and application of indigenous knowledge in development and promotes regional networking.

Constance M. McCorkle
7767 Trevino Lane
Falls Church
Virginia 22043, USA
Tel (703) 2041837

Dr. McCorkle holds an M.A. in linguistics and an M.A. and a Ph.D. in anthropology from Stanford University. Currently, she works as a consultant in agriculture, environment and rural development worldwide. She previously served as director of USAID's staff environmental training program and as director of research for USAID's global gender-in-development project. From 1985 to 1990, as a faculty member in the University of Missouri's Department of Rural Sociology, she coordinated the Sociology Project of the Small Ruminant-Collaborative Research Support Program (SRCRSP). Dr. McCorkle began work in ethnoveterinary medicine in 1980 while conducting the SR-CRSP research in Peru. In 1986, she published the first article describing the field of ethnoveterinary research and development (Journal of Ethnobiology, 6: 129149). She has since designed and conducted research and published several articles on ethnoveterinary medicine, traditional healers and paraveterinary extension in Latin America and Africa. She is currently editing a multi-author volume (with Schillhorn van Veen and Mathias) on ethnoveterinary medicine worldwide. She is a US citizen.

Sommay Mekhagnomdara
National Institute Vaccine Production (NIVP)
B.P. 1298
Nonteng, Vientianne, Laos
Tel 612017-612028
Fax c/o Quaker Service 856-21-314370

Dr. Sommay, a Lao citizen, is the head of the Veterinary Division of the National Institute for Vaccine Production. He is also Quaker Service's coordinator for the improvement of veterinary field services. He has published two Booklets: Village veterinary worker training handbook and Indigenous chicken raising in Laos.

Tri Budhi Murdiati
Balitvet-Research Institute for Veterinary Science
Jln. Martadinata 30
Bogor 16114, Indonesia
Tel (0251) 331048
Fax (0251) 336425

Dr. Tri Budhi Murdiati holds an M.Sc. in toxicology from Sydney University (Australia) and a Ph.D. in poisonous plants from James Cook University (also in Australia). She worked for three years with the Research Institute for Animal Production in Bogor, Indonesia. In 1984, she joined the Research Institute for Veterinary Science, where she is currently a research scientist. Dr. Murdiati has conducted a number of laboratory trials and village studies on ethnoveterinary medicine. She has also done research on residues of antibiotics in livestock products and the environmental impact of livestock methodology. She is an Indonesian citizen.

H.D. Wasantha Piyadasa
Provincial Director's Office (West)
Livestock Farrn
Welisera, Ragama
Sri Lanka
Tel 01 538474

Dr. Piyadasa, a Sri Lankan, has 17 years of experience in clinical practice with livestock and other animals species, in veterinary acupuncture and in the use of herbal medicine in animals. He completed his B.S. degree in veterinary science in 1975 and an M.Sc. in animal physiology in 1984, both from Peradenya University. He is currently involved in swine development activities in the Department of Animal Production and Health, Sri Lanka.

Piyasak Sukarnthapong
North East Thailand (NET) Foundation
Post Office Box 2, Amphur Muang
Surin 32000, Thailand
Tel 511-172

Mr. Sukarnthapong has been in charge of the Northeast Thailand Foundation's livestock project since 1990. He conducts training and implements field activities with villagers in the project's target area. The livestock project focuses on medicines and animal health care. It emphasizes a blend of indigenous technologies and practices with Western science. Mr. Sukarnthapong has five years of experience in beef cattle production. He is a Thai citizen.

Sagari R. Ramdas
ANTHRA
A-21 Sainikpuri
Secunderabad 500594, India
Tel 040-862826; 040-863167
Fax 040-690892

Dr. Ramdas is a graduate of the College of Veterinary Sciences, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India, and holds a master's degree in animal breeding and genetics from the University of California—Davis, USA. She has wide professional experience with different rural livestock production problems in India, ranging from tribal to semi-nomadic shepherding systems. As a veterinary consultant to various NGOs, Dr. Ramdas has trained animal paramedics, specifically rural women, and developed training and educational materials which are now used for alternative health systems (especially homeopathy) for the prevention and cure of animal disease. She is deeply involved in the collection and practical application of indigenous veterinary practices. An Indian citizen, Dr. Ramdas is working with rural communities in South India.

Aem Wangklang
36 Moo 4 Ban Nongsai
Tambol Lamprick, Amphur Kornburi
Nakornrachasima, 30250
Thailand

Mr. Wangklang is a Thai farmer. He cultivates cassava and raises 40 cows and 200 chickens. He has 20 years of experience in using herbal medicine for animals. He is a member of the Committee of the Lamprick Livestock Farmer Association.

Medino A. Yebron
College of Veterinary Medicine
Central Mindanao University
University Town
8710 Musuan, Bukidnon
Philippines

Dr. Yebron is a veterinarian at the College of Veterinary Medicine of Central Mindanao University in Bukidnon, Philippines. He is an associate professor and former dean of that college, which conducted more than 30 studies and theses on herbal medicine and related indigenous practices. Dr. Yebron holds an M.S. degree with a major in veterinary pathology. He has been teaching and doing research and extension work for the last 18 years. He is concurrently the coordinator of the Philippines-Belgium Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory.

References

Adjid, R.M.A. 1990. Survey of Traditional Medicine Use for Sheep Health Problems by OPP Farmers in the Bogor District of West Java. Working Paper No. 118. Small Ruminant- Collaborative Research Support Program, Balai Penelitian Ternak, Pusat Penelitian den Pengembangan Peternakan, Bogor, Indonesia.

Agravante, Marie Denise, Jovita G. Reyes, Florenda I. Santiago and Angelita G. Reyes. 1985. Philippine Plants (Their Medicinal, Culinary and Cosmetic Values). REX Book Store, Manila, Philippines.

Anjaria, Jayvir V. 1986. Traditional (Indigenous) Veterinary Medicine Project: Recent Trends in the Use of Traditional (Indigenous) Veterinary Drugs in Animal Health and Production. Veterinary Research Institute, Gannornwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Anjaria, Jayvir V. 1994. Traditional Veterinary Medicine in India: Research and Development—An Overview. Unpublished paper. Available at the Library of the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.

Blood, D.C. and V. P. Studdert. 1988. Bailliere's Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary. Bailliere Tindall: London.

Co, Leonardo L. 1989. Common Medicinal Plants of the Cordillera Region (Northern Luzon, Philippines). Community Health Education, Services and Training in the Cordillera Region (CHESTCORE), Baguio City, Philippines.

Dayrit, Ricardo El. S. 1979. Swine Raising. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.

Evans, William Charles. 1989 (13th edition). Trease and Evans' Pharmacognosy. Bailli�re Tindall, London, UK.

FAO. 1991. Traditional Veterinary Medicine in Indonesia. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

FAO. 1991. Traditional Veterinary Medicine in Nepal. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

FAO. 1991. Traditional Veterinary Medicine in Sri Lanka. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

FAO. 1992. Traditional Veterinary Medicine in the Philippines. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand

Fernandez, T. J. 1990. Medicinal Plants for Haemophilus gallinarum Infection in Chickens. ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development. 7 (22): 99-107.

Fernandez, T. J. 1991. Local Plants Having Anthelmintic Values. ASEAN Journal on Science and Technology for Development. 8 (2):115-119.

Fernandez T. J., D. N. Amihan and E. E. Ceniza. 1992. Anthelmintic Principle of Local Plants. Terminal Report Submitted to ODREX, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.

Fernandez T. J. and F. B. Braga. 1992. Anthelmintic Value of Some Local Plants. Annual Report Submitted to ODREX, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.

Fernandez, T. J. and L. A. Galvez. 1994. Phytochemical and Pharmacological Studies of Indigenous Plants. Paper presented during the in-house review in May 1994 at DASVM, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.

Fernandez, T. J. and N. P. Rosillo. 1994. Anthelmintic Value of Some Local Plants. Paper presented during the in-house review in May 1994 at DASVM, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.

Grandin, Barbara and John Young. Forthcoming. Collection and Use of Ethnoveterinary Data in Community-based Animal Health Programs. In: McCorkle, C., E. Mathias and T. Schillhorn van Veen (eds.). Ethnoveterinary Research and Development. IT Publishers. London.

Guzman, Constancio C. de. 1990. Herbs and Spices: Sweet Basil, Dill, Coriander and Fennel. Technology and Livelihood Resource Center, Manila, Philippines.

Guzman-Ladion, Herminia de. 1985. Healing Wonders of Herbs. Philippine Publishing-House, Manila, Philippines.

Jensen, L.A. and M. L. Kaeberle. 1975. Course Outline for Livestock Disease Prevention 487. Iowa State University Research Foundation, Ames, lowa, USA.

Lewis, Walter H. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Loculan, Ma. D. and C. D. Matco. 1986. Utilization of Medicinal Plants for Animal Health Care. Philippine Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science 12 (3&4): 1-7

Ludgate, Patrick J. 1989. Kumpulan Peragaan Dalam Rangka. Penelitian Ternak Kambing den Domba di Pedesaan. Balai Penelitian Ternak, Pusat Penelitian den Pengembangan Peternakan, Bogor, Indonesia.

Mateo, Carmencita D. 1 9X6. Medicinal Plants for Animal Health Care. Animal Production Technology. 2 (1): 26 32.

Mateo, Carmencita D. 1987. use of Herhal Medicine in Disease Control and Prevention in Livestock. Animal Husbandry and Agricultural Journal. (April): 14-17.

Mathias-Mundy, Evelyn and Constance M. McCorkle. 1989. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change No. 6. Iowa State University Research Foundation, Ames, Iowa, USA.

Mathias-Mundy, Evelyn and Tri Budhi Murdiati (eds.). 1991. Traditional Veterinary Medicine for Small Ruminants in Java. Indonesian Small Ruminant Network, Bogor, Indonesia.

Mathias-Mundy, Evelyn, Sri Wahyuni, Tri Budhi Murdiati, Agus Suparyanto, Dwi Priyanto, Isbandi, Beriajaya and Harini Sangat-Roemantyo. 1992. Traditional Animal Health Care for Goats and Sheep in West Java: A Comparison of Three Villages. Working Paper No. 139. Small Ruminant- Collaborative Research Support Program, Balai Penelitian Ternak, Pusat Penelitian den Pengembangan Peternakan, Bogor, Indonesia.

Micu, E. D. and C. D. Mateo. 1986. The Potential Use of Ampalaya (Momordica charantia Linn.), Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) and Kalasiman (Portulaca oleracea Linn) Extracts in the Prevention of Piglet Anemia. Philippine Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science. l 2 (3 & 4): 24-30.

Morton, Julia F. 1977 Major Medicinal Plants: Botany, Culture and Uses. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, USA.

Murdiati, T.B. and J. Manurung. 1991. Uji Daun Ketepeng (Cassia alata L.) untuk Pengobatan Penyakit Kulit (Psoroptes Cuniculi) pada Kelinci. Research Institute for Animal Disease, Bogor, Indonesia.

Mursof, E. P. 1990. Pengendalian Ascaridia galli pada Ayam Petelur Dengangetah Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.). MS Thesis. Institut Pertaian Bogor, Indonesia.

Nadkarni, A. K. 1992. Indian Materia Medical Vols. 1 and 2. Popular Prakashan Private Ltd., 35C Tardeo Road, Popular Press Bldg., Bombay - 400034, India.

Oliveros-Belardo, Luz. 1981. Herbal Medication in the Philippines and the Search of its Scientific Basis. Occasional Paper, Research Center, De La Salle University, Philippines.

Padua, Ludivina S. de, Gregorio C. Lugod and Juan V. Pancho. 1977 (Vol. I), 1978 (Vol.II), 1981 (Vol. III), 1989 (Vol. IV). Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants. Documentation and Information Section Office of the Director of Research, University of the Philippines at Los Ba�os, Philippines.

Perry, Lily M. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia: Attributed Properties and Uses. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, UK.

PCARRD. 1988. The Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care. Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development, Los Ba�os, Laguna, Philippines.

Prajapati, R. B. and L. S. Hiregoudar. 1976. Treatment of Psoroptic Mange of Buffaloes with Mineral and Plant Oil. Indian Veterinary Journal. 53: 150151.

Quisumbing, Eduardo. 1978. Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing, Manila, Philippines.

Rao, V. N., H. C. Joshi and Abhay Kumar. 1983. Therapeutic Efficacy of Garlic (Allium sativum) Against E. cold Infections in Chickens. Avian Research. 67 (1): 26-27.

Sastroamidjojo, A. Senso. 1988. Obat Asli Indonesia. Penerbit Din Rakyat, Indonesia.

Satyavani, G.V., M. K. Raina and M. Sharma (eds.). 1976. Medicinal Plants of India (Vol 1). Indian Council of Medical Research New Delhi India.

Satyavani, G.V., and Ashok K. Gupta (eds). 1987. Medicinal Plants of India. (Vol II). Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India.

Sinn, Rosalee. 1983. Raising Goats for Milk and Meat. Heifer Project International, Arkansas, USA.

Sri Wahyuni, Tri Budhi Murdiati, Beriajaya, Harini SangatRoemantyo, Agus Suparyanto, Dwi Priyanto, Isbandi and Evelyn Mathias-Mundy. 1992. The Sociology of Animal Health: Traditional Veterinary Knowledge in Cinangka, West Java, Indonesia: A Case Study. Working Paper No. 127. Small Ruminant—Collaborative Support Research Program, Balai Penelitian Ternak, Pusat Penelitian den Pengembangan Peternakan, Bogor, Indonesia.

Somehit, Ponpangan and Suparb Poobrasert. 1991. Edible and Poisonous Plants in Thai Forests. Second edition (in Thai). O.S. Printing House, Bangkok, Thailand.

Somsuk Madehaehiap. 1991. Medicinal Plants. First edition (in Thai). Praepitaya Publishing, Bangkok, Thailand.

Suyat, Gaudencio dela Cruz. 1990. In Vitro Study on the Antibacterial Effect of Tobacco Leaf Extract on Staphylococcus aureus. Undergraduate Thesis, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Science, Central Luzon State University, Mu�oz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.

Syamsuhidayat, Sri Sugati and Johnny Ria Hutapea. 1991. Inventaris Tanaman Obat Indonesia. (1). Badan Penelitian den Pengembangan Kesehatan, Jakarta, Indonesia.

Tan, Michael. 1981. Philippine Medicinal Plants in Common Use, their Phytochemistry and Pharmacology. Alay Kapwa Kilusang Pangkalusugan (AKAP), Philippines.

Tylor,E. Varro, Lynn R. Brady and James E. Robbers. 1988. (9th edition). Pharmacognosy. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, USA.

Vohora, S. B. 1989. Research on Medicinal Plants in India: A Review on Reviews. Indian Drugs. 26 (10): 526-532.

WHO. 1989. Medicinal Plants in China. World Health Organization, Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila, Philippines.

WHO. 1990. Medicinal Plants in Viet Nam. World Health Organization, Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila, Philippines.

Yebron, Medino A. 1994. Results of Thesis Research on Medicinal Plants at Central Mindanao University. Paper compiled for Ethnoveterinary Kit Production Workshop held at the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines, July 11-24, 1994.