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World Energy Assessment - Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability (UNDESA - UNDP - WEA - WEC, 2000, 517 p.) (introduction...) Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Editorial board Establishing institutions Overview - Energy and the challenge of sustainability Introduction Part I: Energy and major global issues Part II: Energy resources and technological options Part III: Are sustainable futures possible? Part IV: Where do we go from here? PART I. ENERGY AND MAJOR GLOBAL ISSUES Chapter 1. An Introduction to Energy (introduction...) What is sustainable energy development? Evolution of the energy system Demand for energy services Energy trade patterns and globalisation (introduction...) Crude oil and oil products Coal Natural gas Energy prices and taxes Energy investments (introduction...) General features Capital flows Chapter 2. Energy and Social Issues (introduction...) Towards a new approach to energy for human uses Energy and poverty in developing countries (introduction...) Dimensions of poverty The energy-poverty nexus The energy ladder and household decisions about fuel choice Energy strategies for alleviating poverty in developing countries Energy and poverty in industrialised countries Energy and women (introduction...) Factors determining energy-women linkages Specific concerns and priority areas Energy for improving the position of women Energy and population (introduction...) Demographic transitions Population momentum The energy-population nexus Rural energy consumption and population implications Traditional biomass-based cooking and demographic indicators Energy-population nexus at the global level Energy and urbanisation (introduction...) Urbanisation and energy linkages Urbanisation and energy strategies Energy to improve the urban environment Energy and lifestyles (introduction...) Energy use in the United States Trends towards increased energy use Conclusion Chapter 3. Energy, the Environment, and Health (introduction...) Household scale (introduction...) Harvesting Combustion Estimated health effects Greenhouse gases Workplace scale (introduction...) Biomass Coal Oil and gas Hydropower and other renewables Nuclear danger Number of workers and quantitative health effects estimates Community scale (introduction...) Fuel-derived air pollution in cities of industrialised countries Fuel-derived air pollution in cities of developing countries Urban pollution control in the longer run Hydroelectric dams6 Nuclear power Regional scale (introduction...) Emissions and energy Future emissions Acid deposition Tropospheric ozone Suspended fine particles Regional climate change Global scale: climate change from greenhouse gases (introduction...) Consequences of greenhouse gas-induced climate change Alternative energy futures and greenhouse gas emissions International agreements to address global climate change Cross-scale impacts (introduction...) Environmental risk transition Win-win strategies to link environmental improvements at different scales Assessment methods Implications for the future (introduction...) Household scale Workplace scale Community scale Regional scale Global scale Cross-scale Conclusion Chapter 4. Energy Security (introduction...) New dimensions and challenges to energy security (introduction...) Security of electric power supply Routes to enhanced energy security Energy adequacy (introduction...) Crude oil Natural gas Coal Nuclear energy Renewables The resource outlook Supply security (introduction...) Security of crude oil supply Security of natural gas supply Security of coal supply Nuclear energy and energy security Energy intensity The environment and energy security Markets and energy security (introduction...) The role of the state Regional cooperation and the growing importance of regional electricity grids and network energies Conclusion PART II. ENERGY RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS Chapter 5. Energy Resources (introduction...) Definitions and units Oil reserves and resources (introduction...) Ultimately recoverable resources - the static or geologists’ view Available resources - the dynamic or economists’ view Reconciling the two views Gas reserves and resources (introduction...) Conventional gas Unconventional gas Coal reserves and resources (introduction...) Current resources and reserves Additional resources Summary of fossil resources Reserves and resources of fissile materials (introduction...) Uranium reserves Uranium resources Thorium reserves and resources Hydroelectric resources (introduction...) Theoretical potential Technical potential Economic potential Major constraints to hydroelectricity expansion Biomass resources (introduction...) Sources Perceptions and problems Technical potential of biomass energy plantations Energy balances and biomass productivity Agricultural and forestry residues and municipal waste Environmental implications of biomass production Environmentally motivated responses to biomass production Economics Solar energy resources Wind energy resources Geothermal energy resources Ocean energy resources Conclusion Chapter 6. Energy End-Use Efficiency (introduction...) Recent trends in energy intensity in countries and regions (introduction...) OECD countries Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States Developing Asia, Africa, and Latin America Potential benefits of technology transfer (introduction...) Transition economies Developing countries Types of potential for increased energy efficiency The economic potential of energy efficiency by region and sector (introduction...) Western Europe North America Japan and Southeast Asia Eastern Europe Russia and other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States India China Latin America Africa The economic potential of energy efficiency - a systemic perspective Technical and theoretical potentials for rational energy use after 2020 Obstacles, market imperfections, and disincentives for efficient energy use (introduction...) General obstacles Target group-specific and technology-specific obstacles National and international policies to exploit the economic potential of energy efficiency in end-use sectors (introduction...) General policy measures Sector- and technology-specific policy measures International policy measures Conclusion Chapter 7. Renewable Energy Technologies (introduction...) Biomass energy (introduction...) The potential of biomass energy Biomass energy conversion technologies Environmental impacts of biomass energy systems Economics of biomass energy systems Implementation issues Conclusion Wind energy (introduction...) The potential of wind energy Development of installed wind power Technology developments System aspects Environmental aspects Economic aspects Implementation issues Conclusion Photovoltaic solar energy (introduction...) Characteristics of the source The potential of photovoltaic solar energy Photovoltaic market developments Current status and future development of photovoltaic solar cells and modules System aspects Environmental aspects Economic aspects Implementation issues Space-based solar energy Conclusion Solar thermal electricity (introduction...) The potential of solar thermal electricity Solar thermal electricity market developments Solar thermal electricity technologies Economic aspects Environmental and social aspects Conclusion Low-temperature solar energy (introduction...) Low-temperature solar energy potential and market developments Low-temperature solar energy technologies and systems Implementation issues Conclusion Hydroelectricity (introduction...) The potential of hydroelectricity Hydroelectric technology development System aspects Environmental and social impacts Economic and financial aspects Conclusion Geothermal energy (introduction...) The potential of geothermal energy Recent developments Potential market developments Environmental aspects Conclusion Marine energy technologies (introduction...) The potential and technology of marine energy Economic aspects Environmental aspects Implementation issues Conclusion System aspects (introduction...) Trends in the energy sector Characteristics of renewable energy systems Electrical system design Grid integration of intermittent renewables Intermittent renewables and energy storage Value of renewables Conclusion Policies and instruments (introduction...) Cost of competing conventional energy Financing and fiscal policy Regulation Getting new technologies started Conclusion Chapter 8. Advanced Energy Supply Technologies (introduction...) Advanced fossil energy technologies Fossil fuel supply considerations as a context for fossil energy innovation Setting goals for advanced fossil energy technologies Technologies and strategies for moving towards near-zero emissions Other near-term advanced fossil energy technologies Conclusion Advanced nuclear energy technologies (introduction...) Rationale for reconsidering the nuclear option The need for advanced technologies Advanced nuclear generating options for the immediate future Nuclear energy for the long term The outlook for addressing the challenges PART III: ARE SUSTAINABLE FUTURES POSSIBLE? Chapter 9. Energy Scenarios (introduction...) What are scenarios and how are they used for energy assessments? (introduction...) Alternative development paths and how they are reflected in scenarios Energy scenarios for sustainable development Brief review of the literature on energy scenarios Three energy scenarios for the 21st century (introduction...) Economic development and equity Improvement of energy intensities Primary energy requirements and supply Technological dynamics and structural change The structure of final energy requirements Temporal and spatial scales of scenarios The legacy of past generations The role of policies Implications of sustainable energy scenarios (introduction...) RD&D trends and requirements and technological diffusion Capital requirements and financing Technological diffusion International energy trade and security Environmental issues at the local and regional scales Climate change: Land use and other global issues Conclusion Chapter 10. Rural Energy in Developing Countries (introduction...) Rungs on the energy ladder Fuels in rural areas: climbing the energy ladder (introduction...) Improved cooking stoves Kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas Biogas for cooking Producer gas for cooking Rural electrification (introduction...) The centralised approach The decentralised approach Leapfrogging to new rungs on the energy ladder The time horizon for technological options Accelerating rural energy development (introduction...) Integrated rural development Involving rural people (particularly women) in decision-making Strategies for expanding access to modern energy services Strategies for making modern energy services affordable Conclusion Annex. Case studies of crop-residue-derived modern energy carriers in China PART IV. WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE? Chapter 11. Energy and Economic Prosperity (introduction...) Energy consumption and economic well-being (introduction...) The transition from traditional to modern energy sources The benefits of service extension Energy use forecasts and energy efficiency (introduction...) Ambiguities in the evidence and shortcomings in methods Energy efficiency as a beneficial stimulus to energy use Reconciling increased energy consumption and environmental protection (introduction...) Reducing local and regional pollution Mitigating global warming Liberalisation and globalisation Conclusion: economic perspectives on policy Chapter 12. Energy Policies for Sustainable Development (introduction...) Policy goals and challenges (introduction...) The findings so far Defining the goals of policy Responding to the challenge of widening access Improving environmental acceptability Making markets work better (introduction...) Internalising externalities Phasing out subsidies to conventional energy Regulatory options for restructured energy sectors Raising energy efficiency Mobilising investments in sustainable energy (introduction...) Attracting private capital Tapping other sources of funding Encouraging technological innovation for sustainable energy development (introduction...) Understanding the energy innovation chain The rationale for public policies in support of energy innovation Policy options for promoting technological innovation Encouraging technological innovation in developing countries (introduction...) Opportunities for technological leadership Supporting demonstration and diffusion International industrial collaboration Towards a supportive policy framework Capacity and institution building Moving towards more effective cooperation (introduction...) Cooperative efforts to ensure supply security International cooperation on climate change Widening the involvement in sustainable energy development Conclusion (introduction...) Making markets work better Mobilising additional investments in sustainable energy Encouraging technological innovation Supporting technological leadership and capacity building in developing countries Encouraging greater international cooperation Annex. Trends in research and development funding PART V. FURTHER INFORMATION AND REFERENCE MATERIAL Annexes Annex A: Energy units, conversion factors, and abbreviations Annex B: Data consistency Annex C: Energy trends Annex D: Carbon emissions Editorial board - Brief biographies of Editorial Board members Glossary - Selected terminology Contributors - World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and peer reviewers